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Challenges and Solutions in Exposure Assessment for Emerging Wireless Networks

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A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Intelligent Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 August 2024 | Viewed by 12645

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Marta Parazzini

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Guest Editor

Institute of Electronics and Information and Telecommunications Engineering, National Research Council, 20133 Milano, Italy
Interests: electromagnetic fields (EMF) exposure assessment; deterministic and stochastic computational dosimetry of EMF; medical applications of EMF
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Maxim Zhadobov

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Guest Editor

IETR (Institut d’Électronique et des Technologies du Numérique), CNRS(French National Center for Scientific Research), 35042 Rennes, France
Interests: innovative biomedical applications of electromagnetic fields and associated technologies

Dr. Giulia Sacco

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

IETR (Institut d’Électronique et des Technologies du Numérique), Université de Rennes, Rennes, France
Interests: exposure assessment to electromagnetic fields; biomedical radars for vital signs monitoring; innovative medical applications of electromagnetic fields

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Currently, exposure to radiofrequency and microwave electromagnetic fields (EMF) emitted by wireless technologies is pervasive and ubiquitous. The continuous evolution and deployment of new technologies in the fifth (5G) and upcoming sixth generation (6G) of wireless telecommunication networks will have an important impact on human-centric communications and sensing, which will involve user exposure to EMF in this new era of connectivity. In these new exposure conditions, the accurate control of induced exposure and assessment of potential biological consequences represent a challenge.

In this Special Issue, we invite submissions dealing with innovative computational and experimental bioelectromagnetic approaches aimed to characterize exposure scenarios and to assess human exposure to emerging generations of wireless technologies. Research papers or reviews can focus on (but are not limited to) innovative measurement techniques and protocols, computational methods, stochastic and deterministic dosimetry approaches, compliance testing, machine learning and integrated strategies, approaches for minimizing exposure, networks optimizations, etc.

Dr. Marta Parazzini
Dr. Maxim Zhadobov
Dr. Giulia Sacco
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

wireless technologies
EMF human exposure assessment
EMF measurements
computational dosimetry
stochastic dosimetry
real-life scenarios
in situ exposure assessment
machine learning

Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

25 pages, 24361 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Electromagnetic Field Exposure on European Roads: A Comprehensive In Situ Measurement Campaign

by Gabriela Lachezarova Atanasova, Blagovest Nikolaev Atanasov and Nikolay Todorov Atanasov

Sensors 2023, 23(13), 6050; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23136050 - 30 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1281

Abstract

The rapid evolution of wireless communication technologies (such as fifth-generation (5G) cellular networks) in the last years has allowed connecting different objects (from wearable electronics to vehicles) and people through communication networks, and at the same time, has led to widespread deployment of base stations. Along with this growth, questions about the potential adverse effects on human health due to electromagnetic fields (EMFs) from base station antennas have also been raised. In this paper, we focus on the assessment of EMFs in automobiles during short (between cities) and long (between countries) trips on several European roads. Comprehensive measurement campaigns were carried out in several European countries: Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Hungary, Italy, Slovenia, and the Republic of Serbia. The results show that the median total electric field is 0.23–0.24 V/m in Bulgaria, Croatia, Hungary, Italy, and the Republic of Serbia. In Austria and Slovenia, the median is 0.28–0.31 V/m. Austria demonstrated the highest value for the total electric field, at 17.4 V/m. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges and Solutions in Exposure Assessment for Emerging Wireless Networks)

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14 pages, 2947 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Statistical Characterization and Modeling of Indoor RF-EMF Down-Link Exposure

by Biruk Ashenafi Mulugeta, Shanshan Wang, Wassim Ben Chikha, Jiang Liu, Christophe Roblin and Joe Wiart

Sensors 2023, 23(7), 3583; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23073583 - 29 Mar 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1348

Abstract

With the increasing use of wireless communication systems, assessment of exposure to radio-frequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) has now become very important due to the rise of public risk perception. Since people spend more than 70% of their daily time in indoor environments, including home, office, and car, the efforts devoted to indoor RF-EMF exposure assessment has also increased. However, assessment of indoor exposure to RF-EMF using a deterministic approach is challenging and time consuming task as it is affected by uncertainties due to the complexity of the indoor environment and furniture structure, existence of multiple reflection, refraction, diffraction and scattering, temporal variability of exposure, and existence of many obstructions with unknown dielectric properties. Moreover, it is also affected by the existence of uncontrolled factors that can influence the indoor RF-EMF exposure such as the constant movement of people and random movement of furniture and doors as people are working in the building. In this study, a statistical approach is utilized to characterize and model the total indoor RF-EMF down-link (DL) exposure from all cellular bands on each floor over the length of a wing since the significance of distance is very low between any two points on each floor in a wing and the variation of RF-EMF DL exposure is mainly influenced by the local indoor environment. Measurements were conducted in three buildings that are located within a few hundred meters vicinity of two base station sites supporting several cellular technologies (2G, 3G, 4G, and 5G). We apply the one-sample Kolmogorov–Smirnov test on the measurement data, and we prove that the indoor RF-EMF DL exposure on each floor over the length of a wing is a random process governed by a Gaussian distribution. We validate this proposition using leave-one-out cross validation technique. Consequently, we conclude that the indoor RF-EMF DL exposure on each floor over the length of a wing can be modeled by a Gaussian distribution and, therefore, can be characterized by the mean and the standard deviation parameters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges and Solutions in Exposure Assessment for Emerging Wireless Networks)

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13 pages, 1589 KiB

Open AccessArticle

RF-EMF Exposure near 5G NR Small Cells

by Sam Aerts, Kenneth Deprez, Leen Verloock, Robert G. Olsen, Luc Martens, Phung Tran and Wout Joseph

Sensors 2023, 23(6), 3145; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23063145 - 15 Mar 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1884

Abstract

Of particular interest within fifth generation (5G) cellular networks are the typical levels of radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields (EMFs) emitted by ‘small cells’, low-power base stations, which are installed such that both workers and members of the general public can come in close proximity with them. In this study, RF-EMF measurements were performed near two 5G New Radio (NR) base stations, one with an Advanced Antenna System (AAS) capable of beamforming and the other a traditional microcell. At various positions near the base stations, with distances ranging between 0.5 m and 100 m, both the worst-case and time-averaged field levels under maximized downlink traffic load were assessed. Moreover, from these measurements, estimates were made of the typical exposures for various cases involving users and non-users. Comparison to the maximum permissible exposure limits issued by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) resulted in maximum exposure ratios of 0.15 (occupational, at 0.5 m) and 0.68 (general public, at 1.3 m). The exposure of non-users was potentially much lower, depending on the activity of other users serviced by the base station and its beamforming capabilities: 5 to 30 times lower in the case of an AAS base station compared to barely lower to 30 times lower for a traditional antenna. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges and Solutions in Exposure Assessment for Emerging Wireless Networks)

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13 pages, 16207 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of EMF Human Exposure Levels Due to Wearable Antennas at 5G Frequency Band

by Silvia Gallucci, Marta Bonato, Martina Benini, Emma Chiaramello, Serena Fiocchi, Gabriella Tognola and Marta Parazzini

Sensors 2023, 23(1), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010104 - 22 Dec 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1603

Abstract

(1) Background: This work aims to assess human exposure to EMF due to two different wearable antennas tuned to two 5G bands. (2) Methods: The first one was centered in the lower 5G band, around f = 3.5 GHz, whereas the second one was tuned to the upper 5G band, at 26.5 GHz. Both antennas were positioned on the trunk of four simulated human models. The exposure assessment was performed by electromagnetic numerical simulations. Exposure levels were assessed by quantifying the specific absorption rate averaged on 10 g of tissue (SAR_10g) and the absorbed power density (S_ab), depending on the frequency of the wearable antenna. (3) Results: the higher exposure values that resulted were always mainly concentrated in a superficial area just below the antenna itself. In addition, these resulting distributions were narrowed around their peak values and tended to flatten toward lower values in farther anatomical body regions. All the exposure levels complied with ICNIRP guidelines when considering realistic input power. (4) Conclusions: This work highlights the importance of performing an exposure assessment when the antenna is placed on the human wearer, considering the growth of wearable technology and its wide variety of application, particularly regarding future 5G networks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges and Solutions in Exposure Assessment for Emerging Wireless Networks)

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15 pages, 2967 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electromagnetic Fields Exposure Assessment in Europe Utilizing Publicly Available Data

by Serafeim Iakovidis, Christos Apostolidis, Athanasios Manassas and Theodoros Samaras

Sensors 2022, 22(21), 8481; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22218481 - 04 Nov 2022

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3628

Abstract

The ever-increasing use of wireless communication systems during the last few decades has raised concerns about the potential health effects of electromagnetic fields (EMFs) on humans. Safety limits and exposure assessment methods were developed and are regularly updated to mitigate health risks. Continuous radiofrequency EMF monitoring networks and in situ measurement campaigns provide useful information about environmental EMF levels and their variations over time and in different microenvironments. In this study, published data from the five largest monitoring networks and from two extensive in situ measurement campaigns in different European countries were gathered and processed. Median electric field values for monitoring networks across different countries lay in the interval of 0.67–1.51 V/m. The median electric field value across different microenvironments, as evaluated from in situ measurements, varied from 0.10 V/m to 1.42 V/m. The differences between networks were identified and mainly attributed to variations in population density. No significant trends in the temporal evolution of EMF levels were observed. The influences of parameters such as population density, type of microenvironment, and height of measurement on EMF levels were investigated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges and Solutions in Exposure Assessment for Emerging Wireless Networks)

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17 pages, 4497 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of SAR in Road-Users from 5G-V2X Vehicular Connectivity Based on Computational Simulations

by Marta Bonato, Gabriella Tognola, Martina Benini, Silvia Gallucci, Emma Chiaramello, Serena Fiocchi and Marta Parazzini

Sensors 2022, 22(17), 6564; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22176564 - 31 Aug 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1678

Abstract

(1) Background: Cooperative Intelligent Transportation Systems (C-ITS) will soon operate using 5G New-Radio (NR) wireless communication, overcoming the limitations of the current V2X (Vehicle-to-Everything) wireless communication technologies and increasing road-safety and driving efficiency. These innovations will also change the RF exposure levels of pedestrians and road-users in general. These people, in fact, will be exposed to additional RF sources coming from nearby cars and from the infrastructure. Therefore, an exposure assessment of people in the proximity of a connected car is necessary and urgent. (2) Methods: Two array antennas for 5G-V2X communication at 3.5 GHz were modelled and mounted on a realistic 3D car model for evaluating the exposure levels of a human model representing people on the road near the car. Computational simulations were conducted using the FDTD solver implemented in the Sim4Life platform; different positions and orientations between the car and the human model were assessed. The analyzed quantities were the Specific Absorption Rate on the whole body (SAR_wb), averaged over 10 g (SAR_10g) in specific tissues, as indicated in the ICNIRP guidelines. (3) Results: the data showed that the highest exposure levels were obtained mostly in the head area of the human model, with the highest peak obtained in the configuration where the main beam of the 5G-V2X antennas was more direct towards the human model. Moreover, in all configurations, the dose absorbed by a pedestrian was well below the ICNIRP guidelines to avoid harmful effects. (4) Conclusions: This work is the first study on human exposure assessment in a 5G-V2X scenario, and it expands the knowledge about the exposure levels for the forthcoming use of 5G in connected vehicles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges and Solutions in Exposure Assessment for Emerging Wireless Networks)

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