Seeds

Sporadic cone (or seed) production challenges longleaf pine forest restoration. Characterizing annual cone production change from long-term monitored data provides functional information on the foundational species of this imperiled ecosystem. In this study, permutation entropy (PE) and phase change were used to analyze longleaf pine annual cone production based on cone counts from four sites (Escambia Experimental Forest, Blackwater River State Forest, The Jones Center at Ichauway, and Sandhills State Forest). PE is an analytical tool to measure the complexity of a dynamic system while phase change characterizes the stage of self-organization. Results indicate that PE at each site was close to 1.0 (largely random changes in annual cone production) and generally increased with time. The positive association between the permutation entropy of cone production and average air temperature at different times was significant at two sites (Blackwater River State Forest and The Jones Center at Ichauway). The frequency distribution of phases (e.g., Poor (P), Fair (F), Good (G), Bumper (B)) in cone production followed negative power laws. Phase P could transition to any stage, but more than 50% remained in P across sites. For phase G, it would revert to P more than 50% of the time. Phase B would shift to P, except at Sandhills State Forest. The average lasting time of phase P was approximately 3.7 years. The overall relationship between the interval time of phase B and cone production was not statistically significant. Similarly, the overall relationship between cone production in phase B and the phase change times between consecutive B phases was not statistically significant. These results provide information on the ecological complexity of cone (or seed) production. Our methods can be helpful for estimating the occurrence of bumper cone (or seed) production, the lasting period between phase changes, and providing a tool for predicting natural regeneration potential over time for longleaf pine and other tree species (e.g., masting species). Full article

Tetrazolium test (TZT) can quickly evaluate in detail the viability and vigor of seeds. This study aimed to determine the optimal conditions for conducting the TZT on seeds of Handroanthus spongiosus. For this purpose, seeds from three lots were pre-soaked in water for 16 h, followed by extraction of the tegument and immersion in tetrazolium salt solutions at different concentrations (0.01–0.1%), for increasing periods (1–4 h) and at 30 °C in the dark. The experimental design was completely randomized with a 4 × 4 factorial scheme with 25 seeds per repetition. We applied generalized linear models and the Tukey test for pairwise comparisons of the means at 5% probability. The viability/vigor results were compared with data obtained from the germination test at 25 °C using a subsample of seeds from the same lots. The time (1 h to 4 h) of immersion of the seeds in tetrazolium salt solutions did not cause a clear coloration difference. The seeds subjected to all treatment concentrations for 3 h presented average viability greater than 60%, with no difference in germination percentage. The TZT at 0.01% tetrazolium salt solution for 3 h was most efficient in assessing the viability of the Handroanthus spongiosus seeds. Full article

Onion seeds are prone to rapid germination and viability losses under unfavourable storage conditions. The final germination percentage is considered the most important parameter for determining the performance of seed lots after storage, although other quantitative traits, such as the time and speed of germination, help in more realistic predictions of seed germination. A study was conducted on seventeen seed lots of onion seeds to delineate the most comprehensive parameter indicating seed performance after storage using the four-parameter Hill function (4-PHF) mathematical model. Seeds of seventeen onion cultivars were subjected to accelerated ageing at 42 °C and 100% RH for 48, 96 and 144 h, followed by seed germination evaluation. The germination performance was evaluated by 4-PHF based on time-related parameters, such as the time to maximum germination rate (TMGR), time to 50% germination (T₅₀), and uniformity (U), along with the germination percentage (a), shape and steepness of the Four-Parameter Hill Function (FPHF) curve (b), which were important determinants of the area under curve (AUC), and RoG (rate of germination) curves. Among the parameters, the AUC was found to provide the most comprehensive evaluation of the storage performance of the onion varieties and was decisive in the classification of the varieties as ‘good’ or ‘poor’ storers. A positive correlation between seed vigour index-I (SVI-I) and the AUC reiterated the suitability of using 4-PHF parameters for the assessment of the storage potential of onion varieties. Full article

The occurrence of more than one embryo per seed (polyembryony) is common among angiosperms; however, there are gaps in the knowledge of its effects on the early stages of plant development. In this context, we study the effects of polyembryony and intraspecific variability in gemellar competition during the seed–seedling transition in Neotropical Handroanthus chrysotricus (Bignoniaceae). We used seeds from five cultivated trees in an urban environment inserted in a biodiversity hotspot (Cerrado). Embryo mass, seed germination, seedling emergence and seedling morphometry were evaluated. We did not find intraspecific variability in seed germination, seedling emergence or the mean number of embryos and seedlings per seed. On the other hand, intraspecific variability was observed during the transition from embryo to seedling. When only one seedling emerged from a seed, the seed–seedling transition was more asynchronous than when more seedlings emerged from one seed (with higher uncertainty and a longer time to emergence of the last seedling). The mass of embryos and seedlings decreased with the increase in the number of embryos in a seed, reinforcing the occurrence of gemellar competition. However, the total mass of embryos per seed was similar. The increase in seedlings per seed also decreased the morphometric measurements of each one. A positive morphometric aspect of the emergence of two seedlings per seed was that they had the highest total seedling mass, evidencing the positive Allee effect. Polyembryony had both positive and negative effects on seed germination and seedling morphology in the species, which helps to understand how this phenomenon acts on seed biology and plant establishment. Full article

Geranium (Pelargonium graveolens L’Hér.) is an important commercial horticultural plant extensively used in outdoor landscaping. Seed emergence has always remained a problem in geranium due to its hard seed nature. Hence its germination and other emergence-related attributes need to be adequately tested. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the germination and seedling growth of geraniums under different types of containers. In this regard, the seeds of two varieties of geranium viz. Large FID mixed and Star mixed were planted in different types of containers. The containers included black trays plastic pots, plastic bags, and nonwoven fabric bags. The seed emergence and other germination related parameters were significantly affected by the different types of containers. However, varieties exhibited similar responses for most germination and growth characteristics. Data were collected for seed germination, mean germination time, germination index and seedling vigor index. The type of containers showed a significant impact on seedling growth and development. The taller plants with more leaves and maximum biomass production were recorded from seeds sown in nonwoven fabric type bags. The results pertaining to varieties demonstrated that Star mixed showed better emergence and vigorous seedlings in comparison with large FID mixed. The taller seedlings with maximum leaves and shoot biomass were also recorded from Star mixed grown in nonwoven fabric type bags. Based on the results, it is concluded that germanium may be raised in nonwoven fabric bags for better seed emergence and seedling growth and development. Full article

There is evidence of the negative effects on canola seed yield caused by shading (SH) and high temperature stress (HT) separately, but the combined effect of both stresses has not been studied. This work aimed to (i) evaluate the effects of SH and HT stresses, alone and combined, on floral development, seed yield and quality, (ii) quantify the resulting effect (additive, synergistic, antagonistic) of combined stresses, and (iii) examine the utility of the photothermal quotient (PTQ, solar radiation/temperature ratio) to predict seed yield in stressed canola crops. Two field experiments were performed in Buenos Aires (Argentina) applying HT daytime temperature stress (25–30 °C from 1000 to 1500 h), SH (−80% irradiance), and SH + HT combined stresses, with C unstressed (20 °C and 100% irradiance) crops. Long and short duration SH and HT strongly affected floral development (fewer flowers and pods, with smaller ovules) and seed yield (reduction from −40 to −90% respect to C). Combined SH + HT exhibited detrimental synergistic effects on seed yield and oil concentration for long duration stresses, whereas antagonistic effects were mainly observed for short stresses. We conclude that the PTQ (cumulative from 100 to 500 °Cd after flowering) summarizes adequately the detrimental effects of combined post-flowering abiotic stresses on canola seed productivity. Full article

Teramnus labialis (L.f.) Spreng shows dormancy as a result of impermeability of the seed coat, which requires scarification treatment before sowing. Liquid nitrogen (LN) as a scarifying treatment has recently been used on this species, with excellent results. However, moisture content and immersion time on LN are factors that may affect seed germination and dormancy break. This report studies (i) the effects of dehydration on T. labialis seed viability and germination and (ii) the appropriate moisture content and extent of LN to make this scarification an effective treatment. Moisture contents of 4%, 6%, 8%, and 10% fresh weight basis (FWB) and extension to LN for 15, 30, 45, and 60 min were performed. Seed viability did not change after seed dehydration up to a moisture content of 4% FWB, whereas the percentage of germination decreased as a result of increasing the percentage of hard seeds. The seed moisture content did not affect germination after immersion in LN, but at least 30 min of exposure was required for dormancy break. The mean germination time, germination index, and time to 50% germination improved with the increasing germination from 33% to 91% and a greater duration of immersion in LN. The dormancy of T. labialis seeds with a moisture content between 4% and 10% FWB was only broken when exposed to LN for 30 to 60 min. Full article

In an experimental investigation, we looked into how different zinc (Zn) and boron (B) dosages affected the production and the amount of oil in mustard. Zn and B treatments, respectively, were separated into four levels: 0, 1, 2, 4, and 0, 0.4, 0.6, and 0.8 kg per hectare. We observed considerable Zn as well as B effects on mustard yield and its oil content. The maximum (1.6 Ton per hectare) and minimum (1.3 T ha⁻¹) seed output, the maximum (1.9 T ha⁻¹) and minimum (1.5 T ha⁻¹) stover production, the maximum (4.9) and minimum (3.99) number branches plant⁻¹, and the longest (114.6 cm) and shortest (87.44 cm) plant height were observed from 4 kg of Zn ha⁻¹ and 0 kg of Zn ha⁻¹, respectively. On the other hand, we discovered that applying 0.8 kg and 0 kg of B ha⁻¹, respectively, resulted in the highest (1.6 T ha⁻¹) and lowest (1.3 T ha⁻¹) seed yield, the highest (1.8 T ha⁻¹) and lowest (1.5 T ha⁻¹) stover yield, the maximum (4.75) and minimum (4.02) number of branches plant⁻¹, and the longest (118.7 cm) and shortest (85.15 cm) plant heights. The maximum seed (1.9 T ha⁻¹) and stover output (2.0 T ha⁻¹), tallest plant (140.9 cm), and most branches per plant⁻¹ (5.47) were obtained when 4 kg of Zn ha⁻¹ was given with 0.8 kg of B ha⁻¹. However, while Zn and B were not applied, the lowest output for all of the crop attributes assessed was observed. As a result, for mustard, 4 kg of Zn ha⁻¹ combined with 0.8 kg of B ha⁻¹ may be advised as an effective approach in terms of seed yield and oil content. Full article

The second phase of the Yam Improvement for Income and Food Security in West Africa (YIIFSWA II) project was implemented through a strong collaboration between research and private sector. Private seed companies were provided with a wide variety of training and development activities on good agronomic practices (GAPs). However, the effects of the training activities were yet to be evaluated. This paper evaluated the contribution of the training on high-quality seed yam production through paying particular attention to how it was tailored to the needs of various farmers, and how the knowledge gained was transferred to the field. The study employed an applied Kirkpatrick model and descriptive statistics to measure the indicators of training effectiveness. Results from a statistical population of 172 farmers using 179 demonstration fields showed that the farmers’ training on GAPs was effective, based on four criteria of the Kirkpatrick training evaluation process. The satisfactory results at the beginning of the hierarchical model have implications on the satisfactory results at the end. Improving the effectiveness of a training depends on defining factors such as (i) Training based on satisfaction in meeting the needs of your trainees and the seed production business; (ii) Training based on learning objectives in improving the trainees’ skills and knowledge; and (iii) Training based on learner attitude change in applying new skills and knowledge in the fields. Conclusions drawn from this study indicated that the training was a reasonable value-added mechanism of improved agricultural knowledge and practices for enhancing high-quality seed yam production in Nigeria. Full article

Presoaking seeds in water (hydropriming) or in a solution, usually of polyethylene glycol (PEG) or various salts at low water potential (osmopriming), has been demonstrated to improve the germination of seeds of numerous species including vegetables (carrot, celery, leek, lettuce, tomato), floral plants (cyclamen, primrose, pansy) and others (sugar beet, rape, soybean, sunflower). This treatment allows the germination stricto sensu to occur but prevents the radicle protrusion. Germination of primed seeds is more rapid and uniform than that of unprimed ones. Primed seeds germinate in a wider range of temperatures and are less sensitive to oxygen deprivation. Interestingly, priming also improves the germination of aged seeds. The stimulatory effect of priming persists after redrying and often during storage; however, primed seeds often deteriorate faster during storage or accelerated aging than unprimed ones. A better understanding of the mechanisms involved during priming allows us to suggest markers of the effectiveness of priming. Among these markers, ethylene production during imbibition, cell-cycle processes (DNA replication, ß-tubulin), soluble sugar metabolism (raffinose family oligosaccharides, in particular), reactive oxygen species scavenging through antioxidant systems and energy metabolism are correlated to seed vigor. Global approaches (proteomic, metabolomic or transcriptomic) could also result in the identification of new markers. Full article

The growth and performance of cowpea seedlings are negatively impacted by climate change and the subsequent occurrence of drought stress. Osmotic stress leads to the formation of reactive oxygen species, causing membrane breakdown, and impairs metabolic activities. The harmful effects of osmotic stress can be reduced by using seed priming techniques. Seeds of cowpea var. Anaswara were treated with polyethylene glycol (PEG) and β-amino butyric acid (BABA) as priming agents. The seedlings emerged from the primed seeds have been found to reduce the lipid peroxidation rates and improve plant water status by accumulating osmolytes such as proline, total free aminoacids, and total soluble sugars, and also enhanced the production of non-enzymatic antioxidants such as total phenolics, ascorbate, and glutathione, as well as increased the activities of enzymatic antioxidants such as catalase, peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase, which effectively scavenge ROS and maintain the homeostasis of the cell. PEG priming (cis-priming) and BABA priming (trans-priming) exhibited differential physiochemical responses in cowpea subjected to PEG stress. The current work investigates the extent of stress tolerance acquired through seed priming, and it will help to make a sensitive variety to a more tolerant one. Physiochemical responses of seedlings emerged from BABA-primed seeds towards PEG stress were better regulated to encounter the PEG-induced osmotic stress than the seedlings emerged from PEG-primed seeds. Full article

Soybean (Glycine max) is one of the most important proteins and oilseed crops in the world due to a boom in its demand. In order to meet this demand, various modern agricultural methods are being employed, of which magneto-priming (treatment of seeds with magnetic field) is becoming the most popular technique owing to its efficiency and eco-friendly nature to improve seed vigour, growth and yield of soybean plants. Therefore, we conducted a field experiment to evaluate the impact of magneto-priming of seeds with static magnetic field on soybean var. JS-335 plants. We used static magnetic field (SMF) strengths of 150 mT (1 h) and 200 mT (1 h) for this study. Both the SMF treatments improved growth (shoot as well as root growth parameters), carbon fixation (PSII efficiency, gas exchange parameters, carbonic anhydrase activity) and nitrogen fixation (leghemoglobin content, total protein content, nitrate reductase activity). We observed an association between these parameters which contributed to biomass accumulation and hence to the enhanced crop yield. In addition, reduced levels of ASA (reduced form of ascorbate), MDA (malondialdehyde) and antioxidant enzymes suggest that magneto-priming alleviates oxidative stress in SMF-primed soybean plants. Field strength of 200 mT (1 h) proved to be more effective in improving all the parameters as compared to 150 mT. Our study suggested that pre-sowing SMF treatment can be efficaciously employed for improving the growth, development and production of soybean. Full article

The conservation of endemic plant species is a major concern, as the species are with restricted distribution range. Since in situ conservation alone will not guarantee their maintenance, ex situ conservation measures must be undertaken to support the conservation of these species. Investigation of the impact of the storage environment of seeds gives baseline information. Therefore, this study was conducted to investigate the effect of different storage conditions (room temperature, 4 °C and −10 °C) and different storage periods over one year. Four Ethiopian endemic plant species, namely Euryops pinifolius, Kniphofia foliosa, Lobelia rhynchopetalum, and Solanecio gigas, were considered. Multivariate analyses revealed a significant (p < 0.05) effect of storage condition and period on seed germination. The storage of seeds at room temperature before drying may not be recommended for short-term storage of the studied species, except K. foliosa. After drying of seeds, E. pinifolius, K. foliosa, and L. rhynchopetalum seeds showed high germination percentage (above 80%) after storage even at sub-zero temperatures for one year. The germination percentage of S. gigas stored at room temperature before drying for thirteen months was 60% and that stored at 4 °C was 6%, which indicates that the seeds may be categorized under intermediate storage behavior. The three species can be grouped in the orthodox seed storage category. Research on desiccation screening should be undertaken to predict an optimal combination of storage moisture content and suitable storage temperature to determine storage category with certainty. Full article

Seed-borne fungi are solemn and deleterious pathogens capable of causing significant losses of quantity and quality losses in maize seeds and seedlings. They infect the crop at all points of the production chain from farms to stores. A yield loss of up to 50% can be encountered. Currently, chemical control of the disease is being implemented, though it is accompanied by several negative effects. This study aimed at identifying seed-borne fungi of maize and effective management options. A deep-freezing blotter method and morphological identification of the fungal species were implemented. The seed-borne fungi detected were Fusarium verticillioides, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Penicillium spp., Rhizopus spp., and Curvularia spp. However, in farmer-saved seeds, fungal incidences were significantly higher (p < 0.01) than in certified seeds. To identify more effective management options, the efficacy of water and ethanol-extracted bio-fungicides from three plant species, namely, neem (Azadirachta indica), ginger (Zingiber officinale), and coffee (Coffea arabica) were evaluated. From in vitro assays, ethanol-extracted bio-fungicides have a 100% inhibitory effect on fungal growth, whilst the inhibitory effects of water-extracted bio-fungicides are 55.88% (Azadirachta indica) and 46.31% (Zingiber officinale), followed by 5.15% (Coffea arabica). For the case of an in vivo assay, maize seeds treated with water-extracted bio-fungicides have higher seed germination and seedling vigor percentages. For germination, seeds treated with water-extracted bio-fungicides have higher percentages (neem and ginger (90%) followed by coffee (72.5%)) than ethanol-extracted bio-fungicides (neem (0%), ginger (2.5%), and coffee (0%)). A similar observation is made for seedling weight. Therefore, the tested water-extracted bio-fungicides can be used in treating seeds before sowing them. Further studies on effective methods of extracting bioactive compounds, and improving their shelf life, are recommended. Full article

Gloriosa superba L. is a horticulturally and medicinally important plant. Its seeds have poor, erratic, and deferred germination. The detailed seed structure components and water imbibition mechanism facilitating the process of seed germination in G. superba remain unexplored. Therefore, it is essential to develop methods to ensure consistent and enhanced seed germination in G. superba. Various pre-sowing treatments along with the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area analysis and 3D X-ray micro-tomography (micro-T) were employed to elucidate seed structure components, porosity network, and the water imbibition mechanism during germination in G. superba. The study revealed that consistent and significantly improved seed germination (>85%) was observed using the pre-sowing treatment mechanical scarification followed by 24 h water soaking in G. superba. BET and micro-T showed that the tegmen of the seed coat exhibited porosity (21%) with a well-connected porosity network (17.50%) that helped in water movement through hilum, which was confirmed by phosphotungstic acid staining. However, the sarcotesta and endosperm were water-impermeable due to their negligible porosity. Multidisciplinary techniques such as BET and micro-T along with conventional methodologies can be employed to address the seed coat structure, porosity, and water imbibition mechanism aiding seed germination. Mechanical scarification enabled the water to penetrate internal seed layers through the permeable tegmen via the reticulate pore network, which significantly improved seed germination. The developed seed germination method can produce a large number of plants in less time and conserve the natural populations of this high-value medicinally important species. Full article

Grafting techniques are being used to improve economically important horticultural crops including Cucumis melo L. This 2-year study was carried out at Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of grafting using different rootstocks on plant, fruit and seed quality in cantaloupe melons. The double haploid (DH) female (H27) and male (H4) parental lines of Solmaz F₁ (Cucumis melo L. var. cantalupensis) variety developed by Cukurova University Faculty of Agriculture were used as scion and three commercial interspecific hybrid Cucurbita (Cucurbita maxima Duchesne × Cucurbita moschata Duchesne) varieties, Nun-9075 F₁ (Nunhems), Ares F₁ (ITU) and TZ-148 (Clause) were used as rootstocks. The parental lines were also self grafted and ungrafted parents were used as the control group. The grafted and ungrafted parents were crossed during pollination. Graft combinations and control were compared for performances in measured parameters such as the main stem length (cm), main stem diameter (mm), node number, harvest time (day), fruit weight (g), fruit length (cm), fruit diameter (cm), fruit cavity length (cm), fruit cavity diameter (cm), fruit flesh thickness (cm), fruit rind thickness (mm), total soluble solids (TSS, %), fruit flesh productivity (%), number of full and empty seeds (number/fruit), 1000 seeds weight (g), seed germination rate (%) and time (day), seed emergence rate (%), and time (day). Most of the plant, fruit and seed parameters have been positively affected by grafting. The use of commercial interspesific Cucurbita hybrid rootstocks resulted in high values compared to the control group however, harvest time, fruit cavity length and diameter, fruit rind thickness and fuit flesh productivity parameters were not statistically significant between rootstocks. Considering seed emergence and germination rate Cucurbita hybrid rootstocks performed lower values than self grafted and ungrafted control. The current study concludes that grafting plays a crucial role in plant growth, fruit and seed characters in cantaloupe melons. Statistically significant differences were mostly observed based on evaluated parameters. Full article

Seeds are a basic input for all crop production. Good seed is crucial for the global food and nutrition security, for rural development and farmers’ livelihoods and for all green value chains. What “good seed” is depends on individual farmer’s needs. The sustainable availability of seed and seed choice is thus an essential issue for every farmer. Farmers access seeds from multiple sources. Different seed systems have their strengths and vulnerabilities. With changing farming conditions around the world due to climate change, soil degradation and market demands, an analysis of possible disruptions and general future-proofing appears necessary. Such analysis also informs the kinds of support that different seed systems may need to be optimally resilient. Given the very limited studies on resilience of current seed systems, we performed a literature review on the opportunities and vulnerabilities of seed systems to identify possible resilience challenges. Seed system resilience in terms of future-proofing is closely linked with “seed security”, the secured access to preferred seeds by farmers. Such resilience depends on the functioning of each of the formal and farmers’ seed systems and how these two systems complement each other, particularly when one falters. In this paper, we describe the major characteristics of seed systems, analyze their strength and vulnerabilities, and describe support functions toward future-proofing them. Both the farmers’ and the formal seed systems are increasingly facing varying forms and degrees of sustainability challenges. These require various types of support. Farmers’ seed systems may find it hard to respond to radically changing conditions without support. Commercial formal seed systems are less vulnerable, as they generally are better equipped to respond to the (changing) needs of their customers. Commercial formal seed systems, however, only serve those farmers that are able and willing to pay for quality seeds. This immediately indicates a significant limitation. A common feature of both formal and farmers’ systems is their dependence on the continuous flow and capacity to use a diversity of plant genetic resources. In conclusion, no single seed system can be considered totally resilient and thus future-proof without specific external support. Full article

Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is the most widespread legume in Croatia and its production is based on landraces of great morphological diversity. Landraces morphologically differ the most in the seed coat color and size. Because plant emergence and crop establishment represent the most sensitive stage in crop development, the aim of this study was to determine whether the seed coat color and seed size of Croatian common bean landraces affect the water absorption rate, seed germination, emergence and phenotypic characteristics of the seedlings. In this study seeds of four common bean landraces with different seed color and size, ‘Biser’ (white-colored, small-seeded), ‘Bijeli’ (white-colored, large-seeded), ‘Kornjača’ (dark-colored, small-seeded) and ‘Trešnjevac’ (dark-colored, large-seeded) were evaluated in three different experiments: (i) water uptake, (ii) seed germination and (iii) emergence and seedling phenotypic characterization. The results show that white-colored seeds have a higher absorption rate and release more electrolytes compared to dark-colored seeds of similar size (and weight). The germination results show that white-colored and smaller seeds germinate faster compared to dark-colored and large seeds. On the other hand, the white-colored landrace ‘Bijeli’ took the longest time to emerge, probably due to cell damage that occurred during the fast initial water absorption. Using multispectral imaging, chlorophyll fluorescence imaging and stomatal conductance analysis, the seedlings of the dark-colored and large-seeded landraces were found to contain more photosynthetic pigments and have higher light absorption. In contrast, seedlings of white-colored and large seeds have lower stomatal conductance and transpiration and higher photochemical efficiency (despite possible cell damage during water absorption and germination). Results suggest that dark-colored seeds could survive better under unfavorable soil conditions without absorbing water, swelling, emergence or molding than white-colored seeds. Despite all this, white-colored common bean landraces remain popular in human diets and are often grown on small-scale farms. Full article