Submit to Remote Sensing Review for Remote Sensing Propose a Special Issue

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Remote Sensing in Mangroves II

Print Special Issue Flyer
Special Issue Editors
Special Issue Information
Keywords
Related Special Issues
Published Papers

A special issue of Remote Sensing (ISSN 2072-4292). This special issue belongs to the section "Forest Remote Sensing".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 October 2022) | Viewed by 62434

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special issue Remote Sensing in Mangroves II book cover image

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Chandra Giri

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, 109 T.W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
Interests: mangrove forests mapping and monitoring using high-resolution satellite data; global and continental land cover mapping and monitoring using multi-spectral, multi-temporal, and multi-platform remotely sensed data; image pre-processing, classification, and validation using cloud computing
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Mangrove forests are in constant flux due to both natural and anthropogenic forces. The changing mangroves will have important consequences to coastal communities. At present, conversion of mangroves to other land uses is the dominant factor responsible for the change; however, sea level rise and natural disaster such as hurricane are becoming increasingly dominant. Observation and monitoring of the distribution and dynamics of mangroves is central to a wide range of scientific investigations conducted in both terrestrial and marine ecosystems.

Recent advancements in remote sensing data availability, image-processing methodologies, computing and information technology, and human resources development have provided an opportunity to observe and monitor mangroves from local to global scales on a regular basis. The spectral, spatial, and temporal resolution of remote sensing data and their availability have improved, making it possible to observe and monitor mangroves with unprecedented spatial thematic and temporal details. Novel remote sensing platforms such as unmanned aerial vehicles, and emerging sensors such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and Lidar can now be used for mangrove monitoring. Furthermore, it is now possible to store and analyze large volumes of data using cloud computing.

The journal Remote Sensing announces a Special Issue dedicated to the observation and monitoring of mangroves using remote sensing from local to global scales. The Issue will broadly cover the application of remote sensing using optical (multi-spectral and hyperspectral), radar, and Lidar data obtained from multiple platforms including ground, air, and space. Research papers are expected to use the latest techniques to acquire, manage, exploit, process, and analyze a wide variety of remote sensing data for mangrove forest applications. Both research papers and innovative review papers are invited.

High-quality contributions emphasizing (but not limited to) the topic areas listed below are solicited for the Special Issue:

Application of aerial and ground remote sensing, photography, multi-spectral, multi-temporal and multi-resolution, satellite data, synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data, hyperspectral data, and Lidar data.
Application of advanced image pre-processing for geometric, radiometric, and atmospheric correction, cloud removal, and image mosaicking.
Application of advanced image classification and validation techniques including supervised and unsupervised classification.
Application of advanced image storage, retrieval, processing, and distribution techniques such as networked data transmission and distributed computing.
Application of remote sensing to derive spatio-temporal information on mangrove forests distribution, species discrimination, forest density, forest health, mangrove expansion and contraction, and other ongoing changes in mangrove ecosystems.

Dr. Chandra Giri
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Remote Sensing is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Mangrove forests
Mangrove change
Mapping
Monitoring
Remote sensing
Image processing

Related Special Issues

Remote Sensing in Mangroves in Remote Sensing (13 articles)
Remote Sensing in Mangroves III in Remote Sensing (7 articles)

Published Papers (13 papers)

Download All Papers

Order results

Result details

Show export options Show export options

Select all

Export citation of selected articles as:

Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

5 pages, 175 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Frontiers in Global Mangrove Forest Monitoring

by Chandra Giri

Remote Sens. 2023, 15(15), 3852; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15153852 - 03 Aug 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1497

Abstract

Enhanced spatial, spectral, thematic, and temporal resolution is imperative to optimize the monitoring of mangrove forests, ensuring their effective conservation and management as crucial global resources [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing in Mangroves II)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

31 pages, 15159 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Decision Tree and Random Forest Classification Algorithms for Mangrove Forest Mapping in Sembilang National Park, Indonesia

by Anang Dwi Purwanto, Ketut Wikantika, Albertus Deliar and Soni Darmawan

Remote Sens. 2023, 15(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15010016 - 21 Dec 2022

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3477

Abstract

Sembilang National Park, one of the best and largest mangrove areas in Indonesia, is very vulnerable to disturbance by community activities. Changes in the dynamic condition of mangrove forests in Sembilang National Park must be quickly and easily accompanied by mangrove monitoring efforts. One way to monitor mangrove forests is to use remote sensing technology. Recently, machine-learning classification techniques have been widely used to classify mangrove forests. This study aims to investigate the ability of decision tree (DT) and random forest (RF) machine-learning algorithms to determine the mangrove forest distribution in Sembilang National Park. The satellite data used are Landsat-7 ETM+ acquired on 30 June 2002 and Landsat-8 OLI acquired on 9 September 2019, as well as supporting data such as SPOT 6/7 image acquired in 2020–2021, MERIT DEM and an existing mangrove map. The pre-processing includes radiometric and atmospheric corrections performed using the semi-automatic classification plugin contained in Quantum GIS. We applied decision tree and random forest algorithms to classify the mangrove forest. In the DT algorithm, threshold analysis is carried out to obtain the most optimal threshold value in distinguishing mangrove and non-mangrove objects. Here, the use of DT and RF algorithms involves several important parameters, namely, the normalized difference moisture index (NDMI), normalized difference soil index (NDSI), near-infrared (NIR) band, and digital elevation model (DEM) data. The results of DT and RF classification from Landsat-7 ETM+ and Landsat-8 OLI images show similarities regarding mangrove spatial distribution. The DT classification algorithm with the parameter combination NDMI + NDSI + DEM is very effective in classifying Landsat-7 ETM+ image, while the parameter combination NDMI + NIR is very effective in classifying Landsat-8 OLI image. The RF classification algorithm with the parameter Image (6 bands), the number of trees = 100, the number of variables predictor (mtry) is square root (

\sqrt k

), and the minimum number of node sizes = 6, provides the highest overall accuracy for Landsat-7 ETM+ image, while combining Image (7 bands) + NDMI + NDSI + DEM parameters with the number of trees = 100, mtry = all variables (

k

), and the minimum node size = 6 provides the highest overall accuracy for Landsat-8 OLI image. The overall classification accuracy is higher when using the RF algorithm (99.12%) instead of DT (92.82%) for the Landsat-7 ETM+ image, but it is slightly higher when using the DT algorithm (98.34%) instead of the RF algorithm (97.79%) for the Landsat-8 OLI image. The overall RF classification algorithm outperforms DT because all RF classification model parameters provide a higher producer accuracy in mapping mangrove forests. This development of the classification method should support the monitoring and rehabilitation programs of mangroves more quickly and easily, particularly in Indonesia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing in Mangroves II)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 9865 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mapping Multi-Decadal Mangrove Extent in the Northern Coast of Vietnam Using Landsat Time-Series Data on Google Earth Engine Platform

by Thuy Thi Phuong Vu, Tien Dat Pham, Neil Saintilan, Andrew Skidmore, Hung Viet Luu, Quang Hien Vu, Nga Nhu Le, Huu Quang Nguyen and Bunkei Matsushita

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(18), 4664; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14184664 - 19 Sep 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2974

Abstract

A pixel-based algorithm for multi-temporal Landsat (TM/ETM+/OLI/OLI-2) imagery between 1990 and 2022 monitored mangrove dynamics and detected their changes in the three provinces (i.e., Thai Binh, Nam Dinh and Hai Phong), which are located on the Northern coast of Vietnam, through the Google Earth Engine (GEE) cloud computing platform. Results showed that the mangrove area in the study area decreased from 2960 ha in 1990 to 2408 ha in 1995 and then significantly increased to 4435 ha in 2000 but later declined to 3502 ha in 2005. The mangrove areas experienced an increase from 4706 ha in 2010 to 10,125 ha in 2020 and reached a highest peak of 10,630 ha in 2022. In 2022, Hai Phong province had the largest area of mangrove (3934 ha), followed by Nam Dinh (3501 ha) and Thai Binh (3195 ha) provinces. The overall accuracies for 2020 and 2022 were 94.94% and 91.98%, while the Kappa coefficients were 0.90 and 0.84, respectively. The mangrove restoration programs and policies by the Vietnamese government and local governments are the key drivers of this increase in mangroves in the three provinces from 1990 to 2022. The results also demonstrated that the combination of Landsat time series images, a pixel-based algorithm, and the GEE platform has a high potential for monitoring long-term change of mangrove forests during 32 years in the tropics. Moreover, the obtained mangrove forest maps at a 30-m spatial resolution can serve as a useful and up-to-date dataset for sustainable management and conservation of these mangrove forests in the Red River Delta, Vietnam. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing in Mangroves II)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 7925 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multiscale Diagnosis of Mangrove Status in Data-Poor Context Using Very High Spatial Resolution Satellite Images: A Case Study in Pichavaram Mangrove Forest, Tamil Nadu, India

by Shuvankar Ghosh, Christophe Proisy, Gowrappan Muthusankar, Christiane Hassenrück, Véronique Helfer, Raphaël Mathevet, Julien Andrieu, Natesan Balachandran and Rajendran Narendran

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(10), 2317; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14102317 - 11 May 2022

Viewed by 3570

Abstract

Highlighting spatiotemporal changes occurring within mangrove habitats at the finest possible scale could contribute fundamental knowledge and data for local sustainable management. This study presents the current situation of the Pichavaram mangrove area, a coastal region of Southeast India prone to both cyclones and reduced freshwater inflow. Based on the supervised classification and visual inspection of very high spatial resolution (VHSR) satellite images provided with a pixel size of <4 m, we generated time-series maps to analyze the changes that occurred in both the natural and planted mangroves between 2003 and 2019. We achieved a high mapping accuracy (>85%), which confirmed the potential of classification techniques applied to VHSR images in capturing changes in mangroves on a very fine scale. Our diagnosis reveals variable expansion rates in plantations made by the local authorities. We also report an ongoing mangrove dieback and confirm progressive shoreline erosion along the coastline. Despite a lack of field data, VHSR images allowed for the multiscale diagnosis of the ecosystem situation, thus constituting the first fine-scale assessment of the fragile Pichavaram mangrove area upon which the coastal community is dependent. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing in Mangroves II)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 37044 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Global Mangrove Watch: Updated 2010 Mangrove Forest Extent (v2.5)

by Pete Bunting, Ake Rosenqvist, Lammert Hilarides, Richard M. Lucas and Nathan Thomas

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(4), 1034; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14041034 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 6276

Abstract

This study presents an updated global mangrove forest baseline for 2010: Global Mangrove Watch (GMW) v2.5. The previous GMW maps (v2.0) of the mangrove extent are currently considered the most comprehensive available global products, however areas were identified as missing or poorly mapped. Therefore, this study has updated the 2010 baseline map to increase the mapping quality and completeness of the mangrove extent. This revision resulted in an additional 2660 km² of mangroves being mapped yielding a revised global mangrove extent for 2010 of some 140,260 km². The overall map accuracy was estimated to be 95.1% with a 95th confidence interval of 93.8–96.5%, as assessed using 50,750 reference points located across 60 globally distributed sites. Of these 60 validation sites, 26 were located in areas that were remapped to produce the v2.5 map and the overall accuracy for these was found to have increased from 82.6% (95th confidence interval: 80.1–84.9) for the v2.0 map to 95.0% (95th confidence interval: 93.7–96.4) for the v2.5 map. Overall, the improved GMW v2.5 map provides a more robust product to support the conservation and sustainable use of mangroves globally. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing in Mangroves II)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

17 pages, 2809 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spectral Reflectance-Based Mangrove Species Mapping from WorldView-2 Imagery of Karimunjawa and Kemujan Island, Central Java Province, Indonesia

by Arie Dwika Rahmandhana, Muhammad Kamal and Pramaditya Wicaksono

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(1), 183; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14010183 - 01 Jan 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2869

Abstract

Mangrove mapping at the species level enables the creation of a detailed inventory of mangrove forest biodiversity and supports coastal ecosystem management. The Karimunjawa National Park in Central Java Province is one of Indonesia’s mangrove habitats with high biodiversity, namely, 44 species representing 25 true mangroves and 19 mangrove associates. This study aims to (1) classify and group mangrove species by their spectral reflectance characteristics, (2) map mangrove species by applying their spectral reflectance to WorldView-2 satellite imagery with the spectral angle mapper (SAM), spectral information divergence (SID), and spectral feature fitting (SFF) algorithms, and (3) assess the accuracy of the produced mangrove species mapping of the Karimunjawa and Kemujan Islands. The collected field data included (1) mangrove species identification, (2) coordinate locations of targeted mangrove species, and (3) the spectral reflectance of mangrove species measured with a field spectrometer. Dendrogram analysis was conducted with the Ward linkage method to classify mangrove species based on the distance between the closest clusters of spectral reflectance patterns. The dendrogram showed that the 24 mangrove species found in the field could be grouped into four levels. They consisted of two, four, and five species groups for Levels 1 to 3, respectively, and individual species for Level 4. The mapping results indicated that the SID algorithm had the highest overall accuracy (OA) at 49.72%, 22.60%, and 15.20% for Levels 1 to 3, respectively, while SFF produced the most accurate results for individual species mapping (Level 4) with an OA of 5.08%. The results suggest that the greater the number of classes to be mapped, the lower the mapping accuracy. The results can be used to model the spatial distribution of mangrove species or the composition of mangrove forests and update databases related to coastal management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing in Mangroves II)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

23 pages, 8144 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatio-Temporal Simulation of Mangrove Forests under Different Scenarios: A Case Study of Mangrove Protected Areas, Hainan Island, China

by Bin Zhu, Jingjuan Liao and Guozhuang Shen

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(20), 4059; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13204059 - 11 Oct 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2648

Abstract

Mangrove forests are important woody plant communities that grow in the intertidal zone between land and sea. They provide important social, ecological and economic services to coastal areas. In recent years, the growth environment of mangrove forests has been threatened. Mangrove forests have become one of the most endangered ecosystems in the world. To better protect mangrove forests, effective monitoring methods are essential. In this study, a spatio-temporal simulation method for mangrove forests was proposed in the mangrove protected areas of Hainan Island, China. This method compared the simulation accuracy of different models in terms of spatial characteristics, evaluated the applicability of driving factors in mangrove simulation and predicted the future spatio-temporal distribution and change trends of mangrove forests under different scenarios. The simulation results of different models showed that AutoRF (random forest with spatial autocorrelation) performs best in spatial characteristic simulation. Driving factors such as the Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI), various location indices and the spatial autocorrelation factor can significantly improve the accuracy of mangrove simulations. The prediction results for Hainan Island showed that the mangrove area increased slowly under a natural growth scenario (NGS), decreased significantly under an economic development scenario (EDS) and increased significantly under a mangrove protection scenario (MPS) with 4460, 2704 and 5456 ha respectively by 2037. The contraction of mangrove forests is closely related to the expansion of aquaculture ponds, building land and cultivated land. Mangrove contraction is more severe in marginal or fragmented areas. The expansion of mangrove forests is due to the contraction of aquaculture ponds, cultivated land and other forests. The areas around existing mangrove forests and on both sides of the riverbank are typical areas prone to mangrove expansion. The MPS should be the most suitable development direction for the future, as it can reasonably balance economic development with mangrove protection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing in Mangroves II)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

26 pages, 6118 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Mangrove Forest Cover and Phenology with Landsat Dense Time Series in Central Queensland, Australia

by Debbie A. Chamberlain, Stuart R. Phinn and Hugh P. Possingham

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(15), 3032; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13153032 - 02 Aug 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 5569

Abstract

Wetlands are one of the most biologically productive ecosystems. Wetland ecosystem services, ranging from provision of food security to climate change mitigation, are enormous, far outweighing those of dryland ecosystems per hectare. However, land use change and water regulation infrastructure have reduced connectivity in many river systems and with floodplain and estuarine wetlands. Mangrove forests are critical communities for carbon uptake and storage, pollution control and detoxification, and regulation of natural hazards. Although the clearing of mangroves in Australia is strictly regulated, Great Barrier Reef catchments have suffered landscape modifications and hydrological alterations that can kill mangroves. We used remote sensing datasets to investigate land cover change and both intra- and inter-annual seasonality in mangrove forests in a large estuarine region of Central Queensland, Australia, which encompasses a national park and Ramsar Wetland, and is adjacent to the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage site. We built a time series using spectral, auxiliary, and phenology variables with Landsat surface reflectance products, accessed in Google Earth Engine. Two land cover classes were generated (mangrove versus non-mangrove) in a Random Forest classification. Mangroves decreased by 1480 hectares (−2.31%) from 2009 to 2019. The overall classification accuracies and Kappa coefficient for 2008–2010 and 2018–2020 land cover maps were 95% and 95%, respectively. Using an NDVI-based time series we examined intra- and inter-annual seasonality with linear and harmonic regression models, and second with TIMESAT metrics of mangrove forests in three sections of our study region. Our findings suggest a relationship between mangrove growth phenology along with precipitation anomalies and severe tropical cyclone occurrence over the time series. The detection of responses to extreme events is important to improve understanding of the connections between climate, extreme weather events, and biodiversity in estuarine and mangrove ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing in Mangroves II)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

19 pages, 5533 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Global Sensitivity Analysis for Canopy Reflectance and Vegetation Indices of Mangroves

by Chunyue Niu, Stuart Phinn and Chris Roelfsema

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2617; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132617 - 03 Jul 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2461

Abstract

Remote sensing has been applied to map the extent and biophysical properties of mangroves. However, the impact of several critical factors, such as the fractional cover and leaf-to-total area ratio of mangroves, on their canopy reflectance have rarely been reported. In this study, a systematic global sensitivity analysis was performed for mangroves based on a one-dimensional canopy reflectance model. Different scenarios such as sparse or dense canopies were set up to evaluate the impact of various biophysical and environmental factors, together with their ranges and probability distributions, on simulated canopy reflectance spectra and selected Sentinel-2A vegetation indices of mangroves. A variance-based method and a density-based method were adopted to compare the computed sensitivity indices. Our results showed that the fractional cover and leaf-to-total area ratio of mangrove crowns were among the most influential factors for all examined scenarios. As for other factors, plant area index and water depth were influential for sparse canopies while leaf biochemical properties and inclination angles were more influential for dense canopies. Therefore, these influential factors may need attention when mapping the biophysical properties of mangroves such as leaf area index. Moreover, a tailored sensitivity analysis is recommended for a specific mapping application as the computed sensitivity indices may be different if a specific input configuration and sensitivity analysis method are adopted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing in Mangroves II)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 6815 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mangrove Ecosystem Mapping Using Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 Satellite Images and Random Forest Algorithm in Google Earth Engine

by Arsalan Ghorbanian, Soheil Zaghian, Reza Mohammadi Asiyabi, Meisam Amani, Ali Mohammadzadeh and Sadegh Jamali

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(13), 2565; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132565 - 30 Jun 2021

Cited by 85 | Viewed by 10861

Abstract

Mangroves are among the most productive ecosystems in existence, with many ecological benefits. Therefore, generating accurate thematic maps from mangrove ecosystems is crucial for protecting, conserving, and reforestation planning for these valuable natural resources. In this paper, Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 satellite images were used in synergy to produce a detailed mangrove ecosystem map of the Hara protected area, Qeshm, Iran, at 10 m spatial resolution within the Google Earth Engine (GEE) cloud computing platform. In this regard, 86 Sentinel-1 and 41 Sentinel-2 data, acquired in 2019, were employed to generate seasonal optical and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) features. Afterward, seasonal features were inserted into a pixel-based random forest (RF) classifier, resulting in an accurate mangrove ecosystem map with average overall accuracy (OA) and Kappa coefficient (KC) of 93.23% and 0.92, respectively, wherein all classes (except aerial roots) achieved high producer and user accuracies of over 90%. Furthermore, comprehensive quantitative and qualitative assessments were performed to investigate the robustness of the proposed approach, and the accurate and stable results achieved through cross-validation and consistency checks confirmed its robustness and applicability. It was revealed that seasonal features and the integration of multi-source remote sensing data contributed towards obtaining a more reliable mangrove ecosystem map. The proposed approach relies on a straightforward yet effective workflow for mangrove ecosystem mapping, with a high rate of automation that can be easily implemented for frequent and precise mapping in other parts of the world. Overall, the proposed workflow can further improve the conservation and sustainable management of these valuable natural resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing in Mangroves II)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

30 pages, 22320 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Remote Sensing to Study Mangrove Fragmentation and Its Impacts on Leaf Area Index and Gross Primary Productivity in the South of Peninsular Malaysia

by Kasturi Devi Kanniah, Chuen Siang Kang, Sahadev Sharma and A. Aldrie Amir

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(8), 1427; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13081427 - 07 Apr 2021

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 4646

Abstract

Mangrove is classified as an important ecosystem along the shorelines of tropical and subtropical landmasses, which are being degraded at an alarming rate despite numerous international treaties having been agreed. Iskandar Malaysia (IM) is a fast-growing economic region in southern Peninsular Malaysia, where three Ramsar Sites are located. Since the beginning of the 21st century (2000–2019), a total loss of 2907.29 ha of mangrove area has been estimated based on medium-high resolution remote sensing data. This corresponds to an annual loss rate of 1.12%, which is higher than the world mangrove depletion rate. The causes of mangrove loss were identified as land conversion to urban, plantations, and aquaculture activities, where large mangrove areas were shattered into many smaller patches. Fragmentation analysis over the mangrove area shows a reduction in the mean patch size (from 105 ha to 27 ha) and an increase in the number of mangrove patches (130 to 402), edge, and shape complexity, where smaller and isolated mangrove patches were found to be related to the rapid development of IM region. The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectro-radiometer (MODIS) Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) products were used to inspect the impact of fragmentation on the mangrove ecosystem process. The mean LAI and GPP of mangrove areas that had not undergone any land cover changes over the years showed an increase from 3.03 to 3.55 (LAI) and 5.81 g C m⁻² to 6.73 g C m⁻² (GPP), highlighting the ability of the mangrove forest to assimilate CO₂ when it is not disturbed. Similarly, GPP also increased over the gained areas (from 1.88 g C m⁻² to 2.78 g C m⁻²). Meanwhile, areas that lost mangroves, but replaced them with oil palm, had decreased mean LAI from 2.99 to 2.62. In fragmented mangrove patches an increase in GPP was recorded, and this could be due to the smaller patches (<9 ha) and their edge effects where abundance of solar radiation along the edges of the patches may increase productivity. The impact on GPP due to fragmentation is found to rely on the type of land transformation and patch characteristics (size, edge, and shape complexity). The preservation of mangrove forests in a rapidly developing region such as IM is vital to ensure ecosystem, ecology, environment, and biodiversity conservation, in addition to providing economical revenue and supporting human activities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing in Mangroves II)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

24 pages, 8795 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Natural Recovery of Mangroves after Human Disturbance Using Neural Network Classification and Sentinel-2 Imagery in Wunbaik Mangrove Forest, Myanmar

by Win Sithu Maung and Jun Sasaki

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(1), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13010052 - 25 Dec 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4946

Abstract

In this study, we examined the natural recovery of mangroves in abandoned shrimp ponds located in the Wunbaik Mangrove Forest (WMF) in Myanmar using artificial neural network (ANN) classification and a change detection approach with Sentinel-2 satellite images. In 2020, we conducted various experiments related to mangrove classification by tuning input features and hyper-parameters. The selected ANN model was used with a transfer learning approach to predict the mangrove distribution in 2015. Changes were detected using classification results from 2015 and 2020. Naturally recovering mangroves were identified by extracting the change detection results of three abandoned shrimp ponds selected during field investigation. The proposed method yielded an overall accuracy of 95.98%, a kappa coefficient of 0.92, mangrove and non-mangrove precisions of 0.95 and 0.98, respectively, recalls of 0.96, and F1 scores of 0.96 for the 2020 classification. For the 2015 prediction, transfer learning improved model performance, resulting in an overall accuracy of 97.20%, a kappa coefficient of 0.94, mangrove and non-mangrove precisions of 0.98 and 0.96, respectively, recalls of 0.98 and 0.97, and F1 scores of 0.96. The change detection results showed that mangrove forests in the WMF slightly decreased between 2015 and 2020. Naturally recovering mangroves were detected at approximately 50% of each abandoned site within a short abandonment period. This study demonstrates that the ANN method using Sentinel-2 imagery and topographic and canopy height data can produce reliable results for mangrove classification. The natural recovery of mangroves presents a valuable opportunity for mangrove rehabilitation at human-disturbed sites in the WMF. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing in Mangroves II)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

29 pages, 3885 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Spectral Indices for Mangrove Remote Sensing

by Thuong V. Tran, Ruth Reef and Xuan Zhu

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(19), 4868; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14194868 - 29 Sep 2022

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 7438

Abstract

Mangrove ecosystems provide critical goods and ecosystem services to coastal communities and contribute to climate change mitigation. Over four decades, remote sensing has proved its usefulness in monitoring mangrove ecosystems on a broad scale, over time, and at a lower cost than field observation. The increasing use of spectral indices has led to an expansion of the geographical context of mangrove studies from local-scale studies to intercontinental and global analyses over the past 20 years. In remote sensing, numerous spectral indices derived from multiple spectral bands of remotely sensed data have been developed and used for multiple studies on mangroves. In this paper, we review the range of spectral indices produced and utilised in mangrove remote sensing between 1996 and 2021. Our findings reveal that spectral indices have been used for a variety of mangrove aspects but excluded identification of mangrove species. The included aspects are mangrove extent, distribution, mangrove above ground parameters (e.g., carbon density, biomass, canopy height, and estimations of LAI), and changes to the aforementioned aspects over time. Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was found to be the most widely applied index in mangroves, used in 82% of the studies reviewed, followed by the Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) used in 28% of the studies. Development and application of potential indices for mangrove cover characterisation has increased (currently 6 indices are published), but NDVI remains the most popular index for mangrove remote sensing. Ultimately, we identify the limitations and gaps of current studies and suggest some future directions under the topic of spectral index application in connection to time series imagery and the fusion of optical sensors for mangrove studies in the digital era. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing in Mangroves II)

► Show Figures

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Remote Sensing in Mangroves II

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editor

Special Issue Information

Keywords

Related Special Issues

Published Papers (13 papers)

Editorial

Research

Review

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI