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Remote Sensing of Vegetation Fluorescence and Photosynthetic Efficiency

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A special issue of Remote Sensing (ISSN 2072-4292). This special issue belongs to the section "Remote Sensing in Agriculture and Vegetation".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2017) | Viewed by 78714

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Prof. Dr. Jose Moreno

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Laboratory for Earth Observation, Image Processing Laboratory, Department of Earth Physics and Thermodynamics, Faculty of Physics, University of Valencia, Scientific Park, 46980 Valencia, Spain
Interests: optical remote sensing; imaging spectroscopy; vegetation fluorescence; vegetation biophysical parameters; land surface applications; optical reflectance/fluorescence models; retrieval methods; design of future earth observation missions; dynamical vegetation models; calibration/validation field campaigns
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Dear Colleagues,

Until very recently, all the information about vegetation dynamics acquired from local to regional and global scales by means of remote sensing methods was based on measuring the amount of solar light reflected by the vegetation layer, or emitted as thermal infrared radiation as a function of temperature. Plants also emit light in the form of fluorescence, particularly from chlorophyll, but such emission was too small to be detectable using remote sensing techniques, mostly due to the overlap with the background reflected radiation. While active laser-induced fluorescence has been used for a long time in laboratory and field conditions, the passive measurement of fluorescence induced by solar radiation in natural environmental conditions has been elusive. Technological and methodological improvements have recently been made possible by the measurement of solar-induced vegetation fluorescence by remote sensing methods, in laboratory/field conditions, by means of airborne sensors and even by satellite systems. Some satellite systems, originally intended for atmospheric chemistry measurements and covering the required spectral range at enough spectral resolution to retrieve vegetation fluorescence, have been used as a proof-of-concept, even though they are not optimized for such a purpose. Global vegetation fluorescence maps derived from GOSAT, GOME-2 and other systems have been recently exploited to link fluorescence variability with vegetation phenology, seasonal dynamics, global primary productivity and patterns of changes associated to climate and environmental conditions. The recent selection of the Fluorescence Explorer (FLEX) as the next Earth Explorer mission by the European Space Agency, which will be the first dedicated mission to observe vegetation fluorescence and photosynthesis from space, has consolidated the remote sensing vegetation fluorescence community and creates new aspirations for use of such information in vegetation models and applications. Other space agencies are also planning dedicated vegetation fluorescence missions in the near future.
While vegetation chlorophyll fluorescence is the best remote sensing proxy for photosynthesis, the quantitative retrieval of vegetation photosynthetic efficiency and carbon assimilation through photosynthesis (Gross Primary Productivity) requires additional information about light absorption by chlorophyll, non-photochemical energy dissipation and other canopy biochemical and structural variables. Advanced modelling approaches and new experimental activities have, in the last few years, played a key role in understanding the dynamics of fluorescence emission, the links between environmental variables and fluorescence emission, the coupling of fluorescence information with energy/carbon/water exchanges between the surface and the atmosphere, and global vegetation dynamics as a function of species, photosynthetic pathways, and stress conditions.
Great expectations are now put on vegetation fluorescence as a new type of remote sensing information. The derivation of global maps of vegetation photosynthesis in adequate spatial and temporal resolutions will open unprecedented capabilities in remote sensing of vegetation dynamics. This Special Issue will review the state of the art in the retrieval and exploitation of vegetation fluorescence, and the derivation of actual photosynthetic efficiency of vegetation by means of the synergistic integration of vegetation fluorescence with other related measurements about vegetation status, conditions and functioning.

Articles covering recent research about the following topics are invited for this Special Issue:
•   Multiple methods for the retrieval of vegetation fluorescence
•   Field methods to measure vegetation fluorescence emission
•   Retrieval methods based on solar Fraunhofer lines
•   Retrieval methods based on atmospheric terrestrial absorption lines
•   Statistical retrieval methods based on spectral decomposition
•   Modeling fluorescence emission at leaf, canopy and ecosystem levels
•   Usage of vegetation fluorescence information in carbon balance models and carbon cycle studies
•   Usage of vegetation fluorescence information in agriculture and forestry
•   Usage of vegetation fluorescence information in food security and crop production
•   Applications in quantification of vegetation stress and identification of vegetation diseases
•   Innovative usages of vegetation fluorescence information
•   Active versus passive vegetation fluorescence measurement techniques
•   Information content of vegetation fluorescence
•   Measurement and quantification of non-photochemical energy dissipation
•   Complementary measurements needed to interpret the dynamics of fluorescence emission
•   Estimation of actual versus potential photosynthesis rates
•   Derivation of photosynthetic efficiency of vegetation from fluorescence measurements
•   Methods to estimate Gross Primary Productivity from vegetation fluorescence
•   Calibration/validation activities for the derived vegetation fluorescence maps and associated products

Prof. Dr. Jose Moreno
Guest Editor

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Keywords

Vegetation fluorescence
Photosynthetic efficiency of vegetation
Carbon assimilation by vegetation (GPP)
Applications in agriculture and forestry
Vegetation stress conditions
Global vegetation dynamics

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

3246 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Diurnal Cycle Relationships between Passive Fluorescence, PRI and NPQ of Vegetation in a Controlled Stress Experiment

by Luis Alonso, Shari Van Wittenberghe, Julia Amorós-López, Joan Vila-Francés, Luis Gómez-Chova and Jose Moreno

Remote Sens. 2017, 9(8), 770; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9080770 - 28 Jul 2017

Cited by 66 | Viewed by 8467

Abstract

In order to estimate vegetation photosynthesis from remote sensing observations; some critical parameters need to be quantified. From all absorbed light; the plant needs to release any excess that is not used for photosynthesis; by non-photochemical quenching; by fluorescence emission and unregulated thermal dissipation. Non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) processes are controlled photoprotective mechanisms which; once activated; strongly control the dynamics of photochemical efficiency. With illumination conditions increasing and decreasing during a diurnal cycle; photoprotection mechanisms needs to change accordingly. The goal of this work is to quantify dynamic NPQ; measured from active fluorescence measurements; based on passive proximal sensing leaf measurements. During a 22-day controlled light and water stress experiment on a tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) leaf we measured the diurnal dynamics of passive fluorescence (Chl F); the Photochemical Reflectance Index (PRI); the Absorbed Photosynthetically Active Radiation (APAR) and leaf temperature in combination with the actively retrieved non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) parameter. Based on a bi-linear combination of diurnal APAR and PRI (plane fit model) we succeeded to estimate NPQ with a RMSE of 0.08. The simple plane fit model estimation represents well the diurnal NPQ dynamics; except for the high light stress phase; when additional reversible photoinhibition processes took place. The present works presents a way of determining NPQ from passive remote sensing measurements; as a necessary step towards estimating photosynthetic rate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Vegetation Fluorescence and Photosynthetic Efficiency)

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2875 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Parallel Seasonal Patterns of Photosynthesis, Fluorescence, and Reflectance Indices in Boreal Trees

by Kyle R. Springer, Ran Wang and John A. Gamon

Remote Sens. 2017, 9(7), 691; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9070691 - 05 Jul 2017

Cited by 56 | Viewed by 7175

Abstract

Tree species in the boreal forest cycle between periods of active growth and dormancy alter their photosynthetic processes in response to changing environmental conditions. For deciduous species, these changes are readily visible, while evergreen species have subtler foliar changes during seasonal transitions. In this study, we used remotely sensed optical indices to observe seasonal changes in photosynthetic activity, or photosynthetic phenology, of six boreal tree species. We evaluated the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), the photochemical reflectance index (PRI), the chlorophyll/carotenoid index (CCI), and steady-state chlorophyll fluorescence (F_S) as a measure of solar-induced fluorescence (SIF), and compared these optical metrics to gas exchange to determine their efficacy in detecting seasonal changes in plant photosynthetic activity. The NDVI and PRI exhibited complementary responses. The NDVI paralleled photosynthetic phenology in deciduous species, but not in evergreens. The PRI closely paralleled photosynthetic activity in evergreens, but less so in deciduous species. The CCI and F_S tracked photosynthetic phenology in both deciduous and evergreen species. The seasonal patterns of optical metrics and photosynthetic activity revealed subtle differences across and within functional groups. With the CCI and fluorescence becoming available from satellite sensors, they offer new opportunities for assessing photosynthetic phenology, particularly for evergreen species, which have been difficult to assess with previous methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Vegetation Fluorescence and Photosynthetic Efficiency)

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1435 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Approximations in Aerosol Optical Properties and Vertical Distribution into FLEX Atmospherically-Corrected Surface Reflectance and Retrieved Sun-Induced Fluorescence

by Jorge Vicent, Neus Sabater, Jochem Verrelst, Luis Alonso and Jose Moreno

Remote Sens. 2017, 9(7), 675; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9070675 - 04 Jul 2017

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5718

Abstract

Physically-based atmospheric correction of optical Earth Observation satellite data is used to accurately derive surface biogeophysical parameters free from the atmospheric influence. While water vapor or surface pressure can be univocally characterized, the compensation of aerosol radiometric effects relies on assumptions and parametric approximations of their properties. To determine the validity of these assumptions and approximations in the atmospheric correction of ESA’s FLEX/Sentinel-3 tandem mission, a systematic error analysis of simulated FLEX data within the O

_{2}

absorption bands was conducted. This paper presents the impact of key aerosol parameters in atmospherically-corrected FLEX surface reflectance and the subsequent Sun-Induced Fluorescence retrieval (SIF). We observed that: (1) a parametric characterization of aerosol scattering effects increases the accuracy of the atmospheric correction with respect to the commonly implemented discretization of aerosol optical properties by aerosol types and (2) the Ångström exponent and the aerosol vertical distribution have a residual influence in the atmospherically-corrected surface reflectance. In conclusion, a multi-parametric aerosol characterization is sufficient for the atmospheric correction of FLEX data (and SIF retrieval) within the mission requirements in nearly 85% (70%) of the cases with average aerosol load conditions. The future development of the FLEX atmospheric correction algorithm would therefore gain from a multi-parametric aerosol characterization based on the synergy of FLEX and Sentinel-3 data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Vegetation Fluorescence and Photosynthetic Efficiency)

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8263 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fluorescence Imaging Spectrometer (FLORIS) for ESA FLEX Mission

by Peter Coppo, Alessio Taiti, Lucia Pettinato, Michael Francois, Matteo Taccola and Matthias Drusch

Remote Sens. 2017, 9(7), 649; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9070649 - 23 Jun 2017

Cited by 68 | Viewed by 9509

Abstract

The Fluorescence Explorer (FLEX) mission has been selected as ESA’s 8th Earth Explorer mission. The primary objectives of the mission are to provide global estimates of vegetation fluorescence, actual photosynthetic activity, and vegetation stress. FLEX will fly in tandem formation with Sentinel-3 providing ancillary data for atmospheric characterization and correction, vegetation related spectral indices, and land surface temperature. The purpose of this manuscript is to present its scientific payload, FLORIS, which is a push-broom hyperspectral imager, flying on a medium size platform. FLORIS will measure the vegetation fluorescence in the spectral range between 500 nm and 780 nm at medium spatial resolution (300 m) and over a swath of 150 km. It accommodates an imaging spectrometer with a very high spectral resolution (0.3 nm), to measure the fluorescence spectrum within two oxygen absorption bands (O_2A and O_2B), and a second spectrometer with lower spectral resolution to derive additional atmospheric and vegetation parameters. A compact opto-mechanical solution is the current instrument baseline. A polarization scrambler is placed in front of a common dioptric telescope serving both spectrometers to minimize the polarization sensitivity. The telescope images the ground scene onto a double slit assembly. The radiation is spectrally dispersed onto the focal planes of the grating spectrometers. Special attention has been given to the mitigation of stray-light which is a key factor to reach good accuracy of the fluorescence measurement. The absolute radiometric calibration is achieved by observing a dedicated Sun illuminated Lambertian diffuser, while the spectral calibration in flight is performed by means of vicarious techniques. The thermal stabilization is achieved by using two passive radiators looking directly to the cold space, counterbalanced by heaters in a closed loop system. The focal planes are based on custom developed CCDs. The opto-mechanical design is robust, stable vs. temperature and easy to align. The optical quality is very good as recently demonstrated by the latest tests of an elegant breadboard. The scientific data products comprise the Top Of Atmosphere (TOA) radiance measurements as well as fluorescence estimates and higher-level products related to the health status of the vegetation addressing a wide range of applications from agriculture to forestry and climate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Vegetation Fluorescence and Photosynthetic Efficiency)

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5364 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Atmospheric Inversion Effects on Solar-Induced Chlorophyll Fluorescence: Exploitation of the Apparent Reflectance as a Quality Indicator

by Neus Sabater, Jorge Vicent, Luis Alonso, Sergio Cogliati, Jochem Verrelst and José Moreno

Remote Sens. 2017, 9(6), 622; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9060622 - 16 Jun 2017

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 6633

Abstract

In the last decade, signiﬁcant progress has been made in estimating Solar-Induced chlorophyll Fluorescence (SIF) by passive remote sensing techniques that exploit the oxygen absorption spectral regions. Although the O₂–B and the deep O₂–A absorption bands present a high sensitivity to detect SIF, these regions are also largely inﬂuenced by atmospheric effects. Therefore, an accurate Atmospheric Correction (AC) process is required to measure SIF from oxygen bands. In this regard, the suitability of a two-step approach, i.e., ﬁrst an AC and second a Spectral Fitting technique to disentangle SIF from reﬂected light, has been evaluated. One of the advantages of the two-step approach resides in the derived intermediate products provided prior to SIF estimation, such as surface apparent reﬂectance. Results suggest that errors introduced in the AC, e.g., related to the characterization of aerosol optical properties, are propagated into systematic residual errors in the apparent reﬂectance. However, of interest is that these errors can be easily detected in the oxygen bands thanks to the high spectral resolution required to measure SIF. To illustrate this, the predictive power of the apparent reﬂectance spectra to detect and correct inaccuracies in the aerosols characterization is assessed by using a simulated database with SCOPE and MODTRAN radiative transfer models. In 75% of cases, the aerosol optical thickness, the Angstrom coefﬁcient and the scattering asymmetry factor are corrected with a relative error below of 0.5%, 8% and 3%, respectively. To conclude with, and in view of future SIF monitoring satellite missions such as FLEX, the analysis of the apparent reﬂectance can entail a valuable quality indicator to detect and correct errors in the AC prior to the SIF estimation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Vegetation Fluorescence and Photosynthetic Efficiency)

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10748 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The 2013 FLEX—US Airborne Campaign at the Parker Tract Loblolly Pine Plantation in North Carolina, USA

by Elizabeth M. Middleton, Uwe Rascher, Lawrence A. Corp, K. Fred Huemmrich, Bruce D. Cook, Asko Noormets, Anke Schickling, Francisco Pinto, Luis Alonso, Alexander Damm, Luis Guanter, Roberto Colombo, Petya K. E. Campbell, David R. Landis, Qingyuan Zhang, Micol Rossini, Dirk Schuettemeyer and Remo Bianchi

Remote Sens. 2017, 9(6), 612; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9060612 - 16 Jun 2017

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 7587

Abstract

The first European Space Agency (ESA) and NASA collaboration in an airborne campaign to support ESA’s FLuorescence EXplorer (FLEX) mission was conducted in North Carolina, USA during September–October 2013 (FLEX-US 2013) at the Parker Tract Loblolly Pine (LP) Plantation (Plymouth, NC, USA). This campaign combined two unique airborne instrument packages to obtain simultaneous observations of solar-induced fluorescence (SIF), LiDAR-based canopy structural information, visible through shortwave infrared (VSWIR) reflectance spectra, and surface temperature, to advance vegetation studies of carbon cycle dynamics and ecosystem health. We obtained statistically significant results for fluorescence, canopy temperature, and tower fluxes from data collected at four times of day over two consecutive autumn days across an age class chronosequence. Both the red fluorescence (F685) and far-red fluorescence (F740) radiances had highest values at mid-day, but their fluorescence yields exhibited different diurnal responses across LP age classes. The diurnal trends for F685 varied with forest canopy temperature difference (canopy minus air), having a stronger daily amplitude change for young vs. old canopies. The Photochemical Reflectance Index (PRI) was positively correlated with this temperature variable over the diurnal cycle. Tower measurements from mature loblolly stand showed the red/far-red fluorescence ratio was linearly related to canopy light use efficiency (LUE) over the diurnal cycle, but performed even better for the combined morning/afternoon (without midday) observations. This study demonstrates the importance of diurnal observations for interpretation of fluorescence dynamics, the need for red fluorescence to understand canopy physiological processes, and the benefits of combining fluorescence, reflectance, and structure information to clarify canopy function versus structure characteristics for a coniferous forest. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Vegetation Fluorescence and Photosynthetic Efficiency)

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2679 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Do Daily and Seasonal Trends in Leaf Solar Induced Fluorescence Reflect Changes in Photosynthesis, Growth or Light Exposure?

by Rhys Wyber, Zbyněk Malenovský, Michael B. Ashcroft, Barry Osmond and Sharon A. Robinson

Remote Sens. 2017, 9(6), 604; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9060604 - 14 Jun 2017

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 6321

Abstract

Solar induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF) emissions of photosynthetically active plants retrieved from space-borne observations have been used to improve models of global primary productivity. However, the relationship between SIF and photosynthesis in diurnal and seasonal cycles is still not fully understood, especially at large spatial scales, where direct measurements of photosynthesis are unfeasible. Motivated by up-scaling potential, this study examined the diurnal and seasonal relationship between SIF and photosynthetic parameters measured at the level of individual leaves. We monitored SIF in two plant species, avocado (Persea Americana) and orange jasmine (Murraya paniculatta), throughout 18 diurnal cycles during the Southern Hemisphere spring, summer and autumn, and compared them with simultaneous measurements of photosynthetic yields, and leaf and global irradiances. Results showed that at seasonal time scales SIF is principally correlated with changes in leaf irradiance, electron transport rates (ETR) and constitutive heat dissipation (YNO; p < 0.001). Multiple regression models of correlations between photosynthetic parameters and SIF at diurnal time scales identified leaf irradiance as the principle predictor of SIF (p < 0.001). Previous studies have identified correlations between photosynthetic yields, ETR and SIF at larger spatial scales, where heterogeneous canopy architecture and landscape spatial patterns influence the spectral and photosynthetic measurements. Although this study found a significant correlation between leaf-measured YNO and SIF, future dedicated up-scaling experiments are required to elucidate if these observations are also found at larger spatial scales. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Vegetation Fluorescence and Photosynthetic Efficiency)

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2602 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimating Chlorophyll Fluorescence Parameters Using the Joint Fraunhofer Line Depth and Laser-Induced Saturation Pulse (FLD-LISP) Method in Different Plant Species

by Parinaz Rahimzadeh-Bajgiran, Bayaer Tubuxin and Kenji Omasa

Remote Sens. 2017, 9(6), 599; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9060599 - 13 Jun 2017

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 7285

Abstract

A comprehensive evaluation of the recently developed Fraunhofer line depth (FLD) and laser-induced saturation pulse (FLD-LISP) method was conducted to measure chlorophyll ﬂuorescence (ChlF) parameters of the quantum yield of photosystem II (Φ_PSII), non-photochemical quenching (NPQ), and the photosystem II-based electron transport rate (ETR) in three plant species including paprika (C3 plant), maize (C4 plant), and pachira (C3 plant). First, the relationships between photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) and ChlF parameters retrieved using FLD-LISP and the pulse amplitude-modulated (PAM) methods were analyzed for all three species. Then the relationships between ChlF parameters measured using FLD-LISP and PAM were evaluated for the plants in different growth stages of leaves from mature to aging conditions. The relationships of ChlF parameters/PPFD were similar in both FLD-LISP and PAM methods in all plant species. Φ_PSII showed a linear relationship with PPFD in all three species whereas NPQ was found to be linearly related to PPFD in paprika and maize, but not for pachira. The ETR/PPFD relationship was nonlinear with increasing values observed for PPFDs lower than about 800 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ for paprika, lower than about 1200 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ for maize, and lower than about 800 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ for pachira. The Φ_PSII, NPQ, and ETR of both the FLD-LISP and PAM methods were very well correlated (R² = 0.89, RMSE = 0.05), (R² = 0.86, RMSE = 0.44), and (R² = 0.88, RMSE = 24.69), respectively, for all plants. Therefore, the FLD-LISP method can be recommended as a robust technique for the estimation of ChlF parameters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Vegetation Fluorescence and Photosynthetic Efficiency)

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10489 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Surface Reflectance and Sun-Induced Fluorescence Spectroscopy Measurements Using a Small Hyperspectral UAS

by Roberto Garzonio, Biagio Di Mauro, Roberto Colombo and Sergio Cogliati

Remote Sens. 2017, 9(5), 472; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9050472 - 12 May 2017

Cited by 55 | Viewed by 9490

Abstract

This study describes the development of a small hyperspectral Unmanned Aircraft System (HyUAS) for measuring Visible and Near-Infrared (VNIR) surface reflectance and sun-induced fluorescence, co-registered with high-resolution RGB imagery, to support field spectroscopy surveys and calibration and validation of remote sensing products. The system, namely HyUAS, is based on a multirotor platform equipped with a cost-effective payload composed of a VNIR non-imaging spectrometer and an RGB camera. The spectrometer is connected to a custom entrance optics receptor developed to tune the instrument field-of-view and to obtain systematic measurements of instrument dark-current. The geometric, radiometric and spectral characteristics of the instruments were characterized and calibrated through dedicated laboratory tests. The overall accuracy of HyUAS data was evaluated during a flight campaign in which surface reflectance was compared with ground-based reference measurements. HyUAS data were used to estimate spectral indices and far-red fluorescence for different land covers. RGB images were processed as a high-resolution 3D surface model using structure from motion algorithms. The spectral measurements were accurately geo-located and projected on the digital surface model. The overall results show that: (i) rigorous calibration enabled radiance and reflectance spectra from HyUAS with RRMSE < 10% compared with ground measurements; (ii) the low-flying UAS setup allows retrieving fluorescence in absolute units; (iii) the accurate geo-location of spectra on the digital surface model greatly improves the overall interpretation of reflectance and fluorescence data. In general, the HyUAS was demonstrated to be a reliable system for supporting high-resolution field spectroscopy surveys allowing one to collect systematic measurements at very detailed spatial resolution with a valuable potential for vegetation monitoring studies. Furthermore, it can be considered a useful tool for collecting spatially-distributed observations of reflectance and fluorescence that can be further used for calibration and validation activities of airborne and satellite optical images in the context of the upcoming FLEX mission and the VNIR spectral bands of optical Earth observation missions (i.e., Landsat, Sentinel-2 and Sentinel-3). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Vegetation Fluorescence and Photosynthetic Efficiency)

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28105 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multiangular Observation of Canopy Sun-Induced Chlorophyll Fluorescence by Combining Imaging Spectroscopy and Stereoscopy

by Francisco Pinto, Mark Müller-Linow, Anke Schickling, M. Pilar Cendrero-Mateo, Agim Ballvora and Uwe Rascher

Remote Sens. 2017, 9(5), 415; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9050415 - 28 Apr 2017

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 8480

Abstract

The effect that the canopy structure and the viewing geometry have on the intensity and the spatial distribution of passively measured sun-induced chlorophyll fluorescence at canopy scale is still not well understood. These uncertainties constrain the potential use of fluorescence to quantify photosynthesis at this level. Using a novel technique, we evaluated the diurnal changes in the spatial distribution of sun-induced fluorescence at 760 nm (F₇₆₀) within the canopy as a consequence of the spatial disposition of the leaves and the viewing angle of the sensor. High resolution spectral and stereo images of a full sugar beet canopy were recorded simultaneously in the field to estimate maps of F₇₆₀ and the surface angle distribution, respectively. A dedicated algorithm was used to align both maps in the post-processing and its accuracy was evaluated using a sensitivity test. The relative angle between sun and the leaf surfaces primarily determined the amount of incident Photosynthetic Active Radiation (PAR), which in turn was reflected in different values of F₇₆₀, with the highest values occurring in leaf surfaces that are perpendicularly oriented to the sun. The viewing angle of the sensor also had an impact in the intensity of the recorded F₇₆₀. Higher viewing angles generally resulted in higher values of F₇₆₀. We attribute these changes to a direct effect of the vegetation directional reflectance response on fluorescence retrieval. Consequently, at leaf surface level, the spatio-temporal variations of F₇₆₀ were mainly explained by the sun–leaf–sensor geometry rather than directionality of the fluorescence emission. At canopy scale, the diurnal patterns of F₇₆₀ observed on the top-of-canopy were attributed to the complex interplay between the light penetration into the canopy as a function of the display of the various leaves and the fluorescence emission of each leaf which is modulated by the exposure of the individual leaf patch to the incoming light and the functional status of photosynthesis. We expect that forward modeling can help derive analytical simplified skeleton assumptions to scale canopy measurements to the leaf functional properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Vegetation Fluorescence and Photosynthetic Efficiency)

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