2024

Jump to: 2023, 2022, 2021

13 pages, 3340 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Different Factors on Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) Nanoparticle Properties and Drug Release Behaviors When Co-Loaded with Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Drugs

by Lianguo Wang, Pei Wang, Yifan Liu, Muhammad Atae Mustafa Mahayyudin, Rong Li, Weilun Zhang, Yilan Zhan and Zhihua Li

Polymers 2024, 16(7), 865; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16070865 - 22 Mar 2024

Viewed by 524

Abstract

Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles (PLGA NPs) are versatile drug nanocarriers with a wide spectrum of applications owing to their extensive advantages, including biodegradability, non-toxic side effects, and low immunogenicity. Among the numerous nanoparticle preparation methods available for PLGA NPs (the hydrophobic polymer), one of [...] Read more.

Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles (PLGA NPs) are versatile drug nanocarriers with a wide spectrum of applications owing to their extensive advantages, including biodegradability, non-toxic side effects, and low immunogenicity. Among the numerous nanoparticle preparation methods available for PLGA NPs (the hydrophobic polymer), one of the most extensively utilized preparations is the sonicated-emulsified solvent evaporation method, owing to its simplicity, speed, convenience, and cost-effectiveness. Nevertheless, several factors can influence the outcomes, such as the types of concentration of the surfactants and organic solvents, as well as the volume of the aqueous phase. The objective of this article is to explore the influence of these factors on the properties of PLGA NPs and their drug release behavior following encapsulation. Herein, PLGA NPs were fabricated using bovine serum albumin (BSA) as a surfactant to investigate the impact of influencing factors, including different water-soluble organic solvents such as propylene carbonate (PC), ethyl acetate (PA), and dichloromethane (DCM). Notably, the size of PLGA NPs was smaller in the EA group compared to that in the DCM group. Moreover, PLGA NPs showed excellent stability, ascribed to the presence of the BSA surfactant. Furthermore, PLGA NPs were co-loaded with varying concentrations of hydrophilic drugs (doxorubicin hydrochloride) and hydrophobic drugs (celecoxib), and exhibited pH-sensitive drug release behavior in PBS with pH 7.4 and pH 5.5. Full article

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2023

Jump to: 2024, 2022, 2021

14 pages, 7843 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Behavior of Lightweight Flexible Structure with Spatial Pattern Reducing Contact Surface Fraction

by David Rybansky, Pavel Marsalek, Martin Sotola, Juraj Hroncek, Lukas Drahorad, Ondrej Kusnir and Jiri Prokop

Polymers 2023, 15(19), 3896; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15193896 - 26 Sep 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 708

Abstract

Flexible structures are increasingly important in biomedical applications, where they can be used to achieve adaptable designs. This paper presents a study of the design and behavior of 3D-printed lightweight flexible structures. In this work, we focus on the design principles and numerical [...] Read more.

Flexible structures are increasingly important in biomedical applications, where they can be used to achieve adaptable designs. This paper presents a study of the design and behavior of 3D-printed lightweight flexible structures. In this work, we focus on the design principles and numerical modelling of spatial patterns, as well as their mechanical properties and behavior under various loads. Contact surface fraction was determined as the ratio of the surface area of the printed pattern to the surface area of the entire curved surface. The objective of this work is to design a spatial pattern reducing contact surface fraction and develop a non-linear numerical model evaluating the structure’s stiffness; in addition, we aimed to identify the best design pattern with respect to its stiffness:mass ratio. The experimental verification of the numerical model is performed on 3D-printed prototypes prepared using the Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) method and made of Nylon—Polyamide 12. The obtained results provide insights into designing and optimizing lightweight external biomedical applications such as prostheses, orthoses, helmets, or adaptive cushions. Full article

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33 pages, 13588 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Strategies to Develop Conjugated Polymers for Detection and Therapeutics

by Yutong Li, Ruilian Qi, Xiaoyu Wang and Huanxiang Yuan

Polymers 2023, 15(17), 3570; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15173570 - 28 Aug 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1195

Abstract

The infectious diseases resulting from pathogenic microbes are highly contagious and the source of infection is difficult to control, which seriously endangers life and public health safety. Although the emergence of antibiotics has a good therapeutic effect in the early stage, the massive [...] Read more.

The infectious diseases resulting from pathogenic microbes are highly contagious and the source of infection is difficult to control, which seriously endangers life and public health safety. Although the emergence of antibiotics has a good therapeutic effect in the early stage, the massive abuse of antibiotics has brought about the evolution of pathogens with drug resistance, which has gradually weakened the lethality and availability of antibiotics. Cancer is a more serious disease than pathogenic bacteria infection, which also threatens human life and health. Traditional treatment methods have limitations such as easy recurrence, poor prognosis, many side effects, and high toxicity. These two issues have led to the exploration and development of novel therapeutic agents (such as conjugated polymers) and therapeutic strategies (such as phototherapy) to avoid the increase of drug resistance and toxic side effects. As a class of organic polymer biological functional materials with excellent photoelectric properties, Conjugated polymers (CPs) have been extensively investigated in biomedical fields, such as the detection and treatment of pathogens and tumors due to their advantages of easy modification and functionalization, good biocompatibility and low cost. A rare comprehensive overview of CPs-based detection and treatment applications has been reported. This paper reviews the design strategies and research status of CPs used in biomedicine in recent years, introduces and discusses the latest progress of their application in the detection and treatment of pathogenic microorganisms and tumors according to different detection or treatment methods, as well as the limitations and potential challenges in prospective exploration. Full article

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26 pages, 5186 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Textured Polyester Fiber in Three-Dimensional (3D) Carpet Structure Application: Experimental Characterizations under Compression–Bending–Abrasion–Rubbing Loading

by Gulhan Erdogan, Sinem Yucel and Kadir Bilisik

Polymers 2023, 15(14), 3006; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15143006 - 11 Jul 2023

Viewed by 1874

Abstract

In this article, textured polyester fiber was used as pile yarn in three-dimensional woven carpet structures. The properties of developed polyester carpets under various mechanical loading were studied. A statistical method was used to analyze the experimental data. Regression models were proposed to [...] Read more.

In this article, textured polyester fiber was used as pile yarn in three-dimensional woven carpet structures. The properties of developed polyester carpets under various mechanical loading were studied. A statistical method was used to analyze the experimental data. Regression models were proposed to explain the relationships between carpet pile height and density. The study showed that the bending rigidity and curvature of dry and wet polyester pile fiber carpets were influenced by pile height and pile density (indirectly weft density) in that the downward concave large bending curvature was obtained from very dense carpet structures. In addition, the average dry bending rigidity of the carpet was over eight times higher than the average wet bending rigidity of the carpet. The thickness loss (%) and resilience (%) for each recovery period of various polyester carpets were proportional depending on the pile density. It was broadly decreased when the pile density was increased due to the compression load carrying capacity per polyester fiber knot, which was higher in carpets having dense knots compared to sparse knots per area. On the other hand, the polyester pile density and height largely affected the carpet mass losses (%) of all textured polyester carpets under an abrasion load. The number of strokes received after completely fractured polyester pile yarns during a rubbing test were increased when the pile heights for each pile density were increased. Findings from the study can be useful for polyester carpet designers and three-dimensional dry or impregnate polyester fiber-based preform designers in particularly complex shape molding part manufacturing. Full article

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16 pages, 3920 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Carbonized Aminal-Linked Porous Organic Polymers Containing Pyrene and Triazine Units for Gas Uptake and Energy Storage

by Aya Osama Mousa, Mohamed Gamal Mohamed, Cheng-Hsin Chuang and Shiao-Wei Kuo

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1891; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081891 - 14 Apr 2023

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 1864

Abstract

Porous organic polymers (POPs) have plenteous exciting features due to their attractive combination of microporosity with π-conjugation. Nevertheless, electrodes based on their pristine forms suffer from severe poverty of electrical conductivity, precluding their employment within electrochemical appliances. The electrical conductivity of POPs may [...] Read more.

Porous organic polymers (POPs) have plenteous exciting features due to their attractive combination of microporosity with π-conjugation. Nevertheless, electrodes based on their pristine forms suffer from severe poverty of electrical conductivity, precluding their employment within electrochemical appliances. The electrical conductivity of POPs may be significantly improved and their porosity properties could be further customized by direct carbonization. In this study, we successfully prepared a microporous carbon material (Py-PDT POP-600) by the carbonization of Py-PDT POP, which was designed using a condensation reaction between 6,6′-(1,4-phenylene)bis(1,3,5-triazine-2,4-diamine) (PDA-4NH₂) and 4,4′,4′′,4′′′-(pyrene-1,3,6,8-tetrayl)tetrabenzaldehyde (Py-Ph-4CHO) in the presence of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) as a solvent. The obtained Py-PDT POP-600 with a high nitrogen content had a high surface area (up to 314 m² g⁻¹), high pore volume, and good thermal stability based on N₂ adsorption/desorption data and a thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Owing to the good surface area, the as-prepared Py-PDT POP-600 showed excellent performance in CO₂ uptake (2.7 mmol g⁻¹ at 298 K) and a high specific capacitance of 550 F g⁻¹ at 0.5 A g⁻¹ compared with the pristine Py-PDT POP (0.24 mmol g⁻¹ and 28 F g⁻¹). Full article

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19 pages, 7771 KiB

Open AccessReview

Molecularly Imprinted Polymer-Based Sensors for Protein Detection

by Semra Akgönüllü, Seçkin Kılıç, Cem Esen and Adil Denizli

Polymers 2023, 15(3), 629; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15030629 - 26 Jan 2023

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 6813

Abstract

The accurate detection of biological substances such as proteins has always been a hot topic in scientific research. Biomimetic sensors seek to imitate sensitive and selective mechanisms of biological systems and integrate these traits into applicable sensing platforms. Molecular imprinting technology has been [...] Read more.

The accurate detection of biological substances such as proteins has always been a hot topic in scientific research. Biomimetic sensors seek to imitate sensitive and selective mechanisms of biological systems and integrate these traits into applicable sensing platforms. Molecular imprinting technology has been extensively practiced in many domains, where it can produce various molecular recognition materials with specific recognition capabilities. Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs), dubbed plastic antibodies, are artificial receptors with high-affinity binding sites for a particular molecule or compound. MIPs for protein recognition are expected to have high affinity via numerous interactions between polymer matrices and multiple functional groups of the target protein. This critical review briefly describes recent advances in the synthesis, characterization, and application of MIP-based sensor platforms used to detect proteins. Full article

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16 pages, 3645 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review of Bacterial Nanocellulose as Suitable Substrate for Conformable and Flexible Organic Light-Emitting Diodes

by Thales Alves Faraco, Marina de Lima Fontes, Rafaella Takehara Paschoalin, Amanda Maria Claro, Isabella Salgado Gonçalves, Mauricio Cavicchioli, Renan Lira de Farias, Marco Cremona, Sidney José Lima Ribeiro, Hernane da Silva Barud and Cristiano Legnani

Polymers 2023, 15(3), 479; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15030479 - 17 Jan 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2162

Abstract

As the development of nanotechnology progresses, organic electronics have gained momentum in recent years, and the production and rapid development of electronic devices based on organic semiconductors, such as organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs), organic photovoltaic cells (OPVs), and organic field effect transistors (OFETs), [...] Read more.

As the development of nanotechnology progresses, organic electronics have gained momentum in recent years, and the production and rapid development of electronic devices based on organic semiconductors, such as organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs), organic photovoltaic cells (OPVs), and organic field effect transistors (OFETs), among others, have excelled. Their uses extend to the fabrication of intelligent screens for televisions and portable devices, due to their flexibility and versatility. Lately, great efforts have been reported in the literature to use them in the biomedical field, such as in photodynamic therapy. In tandem, there has been considerable interest in the design of advanced materials originating from natural sources. Bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) is a natural polymer synthesized by many microorganisms, notably by non-pathogenic strains of Komagataeibacter (K. xylinus, K. hansenii, and K. rhaeticus). BNC shows distinct physical and mechanical properties, including its insolubility, rapid biodegradability, tensile strength, elasticity, durability, and nontoxic and nonallergenic features, which make BNC ideal for many areas, including active and intelligent food packaging, sensors, water remediation, drug delivery, wound healing, and as conformable/flexible substrates for application in organic electronics. Here, we review BNC production methods, properties, and applications, focusing on electronic devices, especially OLEDs and flexible OLEDs (FOLEDs). Furthermore, we discuss the future progress of BNC-based flexible substrate nanocomposites. Full article

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2022

Jump to: 2024, 2023, 2021

32 pages, 3200 KiB

Open AccessReview

Scientific Advancements in Composite Materials for Aircraft Applications: A Review

by Bisma Parveez, M. I. Kittur, Irfan Anjum Badruddin, Sarfaraz Kamangar, Mohamed Hussien and M. A. Umarfarooq

Polymers 2022, 14(22), 5007; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14225007 - 18 Nov 2022

Cited by 65 | Viewed by 20073

Abstract

Recent advances in aircraft materials and their manufacturing technologies have enabled progressive growth in innovative materials such as composites. Al-based, Mg-based, Ti-based alloys, ceramic-based, and polymer-based composites have been developed for the aerospace industry with outstanding properties. However, these materials still have some [...] Read more.

Recent advances in aircraft materials and their manufacturing technologies have enabled progressive growth in innovative materials such as composites. Al-based, Mg-based, Ti-based alloys, ceramic-based, and polymer-based composites have been developed for the aerospace industry with outstanding properties. However, these materials still have some limitations such as insufficient mechanical properties, stress corrosion cracking, fretting wear, and corrosion. Subsequently, extensive studies have been conducted to develop aerospace materials that possess superior mechanical performance and are corrosion-resistant. Such materials can improve the performance as well as the life cycle cost. This review introduces the recent advancements in the development of composites for aircraft applications. Then it focuses on the studies conducted on composite materials developed for aircraft structures, followed by various fabrication techniques and then their applications in the aircraft industry. Finally, it summarizes the efforts made by the researchers so far and the challenges faced by them, followed by the future trends in aircraft materials. Full article

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20 pages, 4839 KiB

Open AccessReview

Polyborosiloxanes (PBS): Evolution of Approaches to the Synthesis and the Prospects of Their Application

by Fedor V. Drozdov, Elizaveta A. Manokhina, Tran D. Vu and Aziz M. Muzafarov

Polymers 2022, 14(22), 4824; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14224824 - 09 Nov 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3026

Abstract

The mini-review deals with borosiloxanes as a class of organoelement compounds that comprise Si-O-B bonds, including individual compounds and polymeric structures. The borosiloxanes first synthesized in the 1950s using simple methods demonstrated very unusual properties but were hydrolytically unstable. However, in recent times, [...] Read more.

The mini-review deals with borosiloxanes as a class of organoelement compounds that comprise Si-O-B bonds, including individual compounds and polymeric structures. The borosiloxanes first synthesized in the 1950s using simple methods demonstrated very unusual properties but were hydrolytically unstable. However, in recent times, synthetic methods have changed significantly, which made it possible to synthesize borosiloxanes that are resistant to external factors, including atmospheric moisture. Borosiloxanes became important due to their unique properties. For example, borosiloxane liquids acquire a thixotropic behavior due to donor-acceptor interchain interactions. In addition, borosiloxanes are used to produce flame-retardant ceramics. An analysis of the literature sources shows that no review has yet been completed on the topic of borosiloxanes. Therefore, we decided that even a brief outlook of this area would be useful for researchers in this and related fields. Thus, the review shows the evolution of the synthesis methods and covers the studies on the properties of these unique molecules, the latest achievements in this field, and the prospects for their application. Full article

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26 pages, 3409 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Electro Conductive Textiles Utilizing the Dip-Coating Technique: Their Functionality, Durability and Sustainability

by Alenka Ojstršek, Laura Jug and Olivija Plohl

Polymers 2022, 14(21), 4713; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14214713 - 03 Nov 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4038

Abstract

The presented review summarizes recent studies in the field of electro conductive textiles as an essential part of lightweight and flexible textile-based electronics (so called e-textiles), with the main focus on a relatively simple and low-cost dip-coating technique that can easily be integrated [...] Read more.

The presented review summarizes recent studies in the field of electro conductive textiles as an essential part of lightweight and flexible textile-based electronics (so called e-textiles), with the main focus on a relatively simple and low-cost dip-coating technique that can easily be integrated into an existing textile finishing plant. Herein, numerous electro conductive compounds are discussed, including intrinsically conductive polymers, carbon-based materials, metal, and metal-based nanomaterials, as well as their combinations, with their advantages and drawbacks in contributing to the sectors of healthcare, military, security, fitness, entertainment, environmental, and fashion, for applications such as energy harvesting, energy storage, real-time health and human motion monitoring, personal thermal management, Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) shielding, wireless communication, light emitting, tracking, etc. The greatest challenge is related to the wash and wear durability of the conductive compounds and their unreduced performance during the textiles’ lifetimes, which includes the action of water, high temperature, detergents, mechanical forces, repeated bending, rubbing, sweat, etc. Besides electrical conductivity, the applied compounds also influence the physical-mechanical, optical, morphological, and comfort properties of textiles, depending on the type and concentration of the compound, the number of applied layers, the process parameters, as well as additional protective coatings. Finally, the sustainability and end-of-life of e-textiles are critically discussed in terms of the circular economy and eco-design, since these aspects are mainly neglected, although e-textile’ waste could become a huge problem in the future when their mass production starts. Full article

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21 pages, 4093 KiB

Open AccessReview

Energetic Polyoxetanes as High-Performance Binders for Energetic Composites: A Critical Review

by Kinga Lysien, Agnieszka Stolarczyk and Tomasz Jarosz

Polymers 2022, 14(21), 4651; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14214651 - 01 Nov 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2050

Abstract

Energetic oxetanes, a group of energetic binders (EBs), are the focus of this review. We briefly introduce the role of binders and the difference between EBs and traditional “non-energetic” polymer binders, followed by a discussion of the synthesis and key properties of polyoxetanes. [...] Read more.

Energetic oxetanes, a group of energetic binders (EBs), are the focus of this review. We briefly introduce the role of binders and the difference between EBs and traditional “non-energetic” polymer binders, followed by a discussion of the synthesis and key properties of polyoxetanes. Priority is given to recent works, but a long-term perspective is provided where necessary, to illustrate the development of this field and the most relevant emerging trends. New reports on methods of obtaining oxetane polymers are presented; concerning the possibility of using a new catalyst, water: Al(C₄H₉)₃, or the ratio of comonomers on the properties of the obtained binders. The synthesis of copolymers with the use of polymers with an oxetane ring and polyethers, polybutadiene terminated with hydroxyl groups and poly (3-difluoroaminomethyl-3-methyloxetane) is discussed. The latest developments in crosslinking reactions and crosslinking agents used are also described. The primary challenges faced by the field are identified and a perspective on the future development of polyoxetane EBs is presented. Full article

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13 pages, 1921 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Litsea cubeba Essential Oil Incorporated into Denture Soft Lining Materials

by Nichakorn Songsang, Chuchai Anunmana, Matsayapan Pudla and Trinuch Eiampongpaiboon

Polymers 2022, 14(16), 3261; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14163261 - 10 Aug 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1409

Abstract

The antimicrobial properties, cell cytotoxicity and surface hardness of soft lining materials (GC soft liner, Viscogel and Coe comfort) incorporated with various concentrations of Litsea cubeba essential oil (LCEO) were evaluated. The minimum inhibitory concentrations of LCEO against Candida albicans [...] Read more.

The antimicrobial properties, cell cytotoxicity and surface hardness of soft lining materials (GC soft liner, Viscogel and Coe comfort) incorporated with various concentrations of Litsea cubeba essential oil (LCEO) were evaluated. The minimum inhibitory concentrations of LCEO against Candida albicans and Streptococcus mutans were 1.25% v/v and 10% v/v, respectively. However, when LCEO was incorporated into the three soft lining materials (GC soft liner, Viscogel and Coe comfort), 10% v/v and 30% v/v of LCEO could inhibit the growth of C. albicans and S. mutans, respectively. The extracts of soft lining materials with 10% and 30% v/v LCEO, 2% chlorhexidine, 30% v/v nystatin and no additive were used for cytotoxicity tests on a human gingival fibroblast cell line. There was no significant difference in cell viability in all groups with additives compared to the no additive group (p > 0.05). Surface hardness increased significantly between 2 h and 7 day incubation times in all groups, including the controls (p < 0.05). A higher LCEO concentration had a dose-dependent effect on the surface hardness of all soft lining materials (p < 0.05). However, the surface hardness of materials with additive remained in accordance with ISO 10139-1. LCEO could be used as a natural product against oral pathogens, without having a negative impact on soft lining materials. Full article

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14 pages, 2779 KiB

Open AccessArticle

MoS₂-Cu/CuO@graphene Heterogeneous Photocatalysis for Enhanced Photocatalytic Degradation of MB from Water

by Asim Jilani and Ammar A. Melaibari

Polymers 2022, 14(16), 3259; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14163259 - 10 Aug 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2082

Abstract

The industrial revolution resulted in the contamination of natural water resources. Therefore, it is necessary to save and recover the natural water resources. In this regard, polymer-based composites have attracted the scientific community for their application in wastewater treatment. Herein, molybdenum disulfide composites [...] Read more.

The industrial revolution resulted in the contamination of natural water resources. Therefore, it is necessary to save and recover the natural water resources. In this regard, polymer-based composites have attracted the scientific community for their application in wastewater treatment. Herein, molybdenum disulfide composites with a mix phase of copper, copper oxide and graphene (MoS₂-Cu/CuO@GN) were synthesized through the hydrothermal method. Methylene blue (MB) was degraded by around 93.8% within the 30 min in the presence of MoS₂-Cu/CuO@GN under visible light. The degradation efficiency was further enhanced to 98.5% with the addition of H₂O₂ as a catalyst. The photocatalytic degradation efficiency of pure MoS₂, MoS₂-Cu/CuO and MoS₂-Cu/CuO@GN were also investigated under the same experimental conditions. The structural analysis endorses the presence of the Cu/CuO dual phase in MoS₂. The charge recombination ratio and band gap of MoS₂-Cu/CuO@GN were also investigated in comparison to pure MoS₂ and MoS₂-Cu/CuO. The chemical states, the analysis of C1s, O1s, Mo3d and Cu2p3, were also analyzed to explore the possible interaction among the present elements. The surface morphology confirms the existence of Cu/CuO and GN to MoS₂. Full article

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16 pages, 2431 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Parylene C as an Insulating Polymer for Implantable Neural Interfaces: Acute Electrochemical Impedance Behaviors in Saline and Pig Brain In Vitro

by Yuan Zhang, Jing Zhang, Song Le, Lan Niu, Jin Tao, Jingqiu Liang, Lihua Zhang and Xiaoyang Kang

Polymers 2022, 14(15), 3033; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14153033 - 27 Jul 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1924

Abstract

Parylene is used as encapsulating material for medical devices due to its excellent biocompatibility and insulativity. Its performance as the insulating polymer of implantable neural interfaces has been studied in electrolyte solutions and in vivo. Biological tissue in vitro, as a potential environment [...] Read more.

Parylene is used as encapsulating material for medical devices due to its excellent biocompatibility and insulativity. Its performance as the insulating polymer of implantable neural interfaces has been studied in electrolyte solutions and in vivo. Biological tissue in vitro, as a potential environment for characterization and application, is convenient to access in the fabrication lab of polymer and neural electrodes, but there has been little study investigating the behaviors of Parylene in the tissue in vitro. Here, we investigated the electrochemical impedance behaviors of Parylene C polymer coating both in normal saline and in a chilled pig brain in vitro by performing electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements of platinum (Pt) wire neural electrodes. The electrochemical impedance at the representative frequencies is discussed, which helps to construct the equivalent circuit model. Statistical analysis of fitted parameters of the equivalent circuit model showed good reliability of Parylene C as an insulating polymer in both electrolyte models. The electrochemical impedance measured in pig brain in vitro shows marked differences from that of saline. Full article

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30 pages, 3726 KiB

Open AccessReview

Effect of High-Pressure Processing on the Packaging Properties of Biopolymer-Based Films: A Review

by Monjurul Hoque, Ciara McDonagh, Brijesh K. Tiwari, Joseph P. Kerry and Shivani Pathania

Polymers 2022, 14(15), 3009; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14153009 - 25 Jul 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1970

Abstract

Suitable packaging material in combination with high-pressure processing (HPP) can retain nutritional and organoleptic qualities besides extending the product’s shelf life of food products. However, the selection of appropriate packaging materials suitable for HPP is tremendously important because harsh environments like high pressure [...] Read more.

Suitable packaging material in combination with high-pressure processing (HPP) can retain nutritional and organoleptic qualities besides extending the product’s shelf life of food products. However, the selection of appropriate packaging materials suitable for HPP is tremendously important because harsh environments like high pressure and high temperature during the processing can result in deviation in the visual and functional properties of the packaging materials. Traditionally, fossil-based plastic packaging is preferred for the HPP of food products, but these materials are of serious concern to the environment. Therefore, bio-based packaging systems are proposed to be a promising alternative to fossil-based plastic packaging. Some studies have scrutinized the impact of HPP on the functional properties of biopolymer-based packaging materials. This review summarizes the HPP application on biopolymer-based film-forming solutions and pre-formed biopolymer-based films. The impact of HPP on the key packaging properties such as structural, mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties in addition to the migration of additives from the packaging material into food products were systemically analyzed. HPP can be applied either to the film-forming solution or preformed packages. Structural, mechanical, hydrophobic, barrier, and thermal characteristics of the films are enhanced when the film-forming solution is exposed to HPP overcoming the shortcomings of the native biopolymers-based film. Also, biopolymer-based packaging mostly PLA based when exposed to HPP at low temperature showed no significant deviation in packaging properties indicating the suitability of their applications. HPP may induce the migration of packaging additives and thus should be thoroughly studied. Overall, HPP can be one way to enhance the properties of biopolymer-based films and can also be used for packaging food materials intended for HPP. Full article

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12 pages, 2755 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bioinspired High-Strength Montmorillonite-Alginate Hybrid Film: The Effect of Different Divalent Metal Cation Crosslinking

by Jiaen Wang, Tianliang Song, Huaxiang Chen, Wei Ming, Zhiming Cheng, Jingwen Liu, Benliang Liang, Yuting Wang and Guangsheng Wang

Polymers 2022, 14(12), 2433; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14122433 - 16 Jun 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1918

Abstract

The natural nacre has a regular ordered layered structure of calcium carbonate tablets and ion crosslinking proteins stacked alternately, showing outstanding mechanical properties. Inspired by nacre, we fabricated different divalent metal cation-crosslinked montmorillonite-alginate hybrid films (MMT-ALG-X²⁺; X²⁺ = Cu²⁺ [...] Read more.

The natural nacre has a regular ordered layered structure of calcium carbonate tablets and ion crosslinking proteins stacked alternately, showing outstanding mechanical properties. Inspired by nacre, we fabricated different divalent metal cation-crosslinked montmorillonite-alginate hybrid films (MMT-ALG-X²⁺; X²⁺ = Cu²⁺, Cd²⁺, Ba²⁺, Ca²⁺, Ni²⁺, Co²⁺ or Mn²⁺). The effect of ionic crosslinking strength and hydrogen bond interaction on the mechanical properties of the nacre-mimetics was studied. With the cations affinities with ALG being increased (Mn²⁺ < Co²⁺ = Ni²⁺ < Ca²⁺ < Ba²⁺ < Cd²⁺ < Cu²⁺), the tensile strength of nacre-mimetics showed two opposite influence trends: Weak ionic crosslinking (Mn²⁺, Co²⁺, Ni²⁺ and Ca²⁺) can synergize with hydrogen bonds to greatly increase the tensile properties of the sample; Strong ionic crosslinking (Ba²⁺, Cd²⁺, Cu²⁺) and hydrogen bonding form a competitive relationship, resulting in a rapid decrease in mechanical properties. Mn²⁺ crosslinking generates optimal strength of 288.0 ± 15.2 MPa with an ultimate strain of 5.35 ± 0.6%, obviously superior to natural nacre (135 MPa and 2%). These excellent mechanical properties arise from the optimum synergy of ion crosslinking and interfacial hydrogen bonds between crosslinked ALG and MMT nanosheets. In addition, these metal ion-crosslinked composite films show different colors, high visible transparency, and excellent UV shielding properties. Full article

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20 pages, 3626 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Blends Based on Poly(ε-Caprolactone) with Addition of Poly(Lactic Acid) and Coconut Fibers: Thermal Analysis, Ageing Behavior and Application for Embossing Process

by Dino Priselac, Sanja Mahović Poljaček, Tamara Tomašegović and Mirela Leskovac

Polymers 2022, 14(9), 1792; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14091792 - 27 Apr 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1912

Abstract

In this research a biodegradable blend of poly(ɛ-caprolactone) (PCL) and poly(lactic acid) (PLA) is proposed as a new material for the production of a relief printing plate used for special applications on packaging materials, i.e., the embossing process. Coconut fibers (CFs) were added [...] Read more.

In this research a biodegradable blend of poly(ɛ-caprolactone) (PCL) and poly(lactic acid) (PLA) is proposed as a new material for the production of a relief printing plate used for special applications on packaging materials, i.e., the embossing process. Coconut fibers (CFs) were added as a natural filler to PCL/PLA blends to improve the functional properties of the prepared blends. Thermal, mechanical and surface analyses were performed on the unaged and artificially aged blends. The results showed that CF has been proven to optimize the hardness of the blend, which is crucial for the production of relief plate for embossing applications. The lowest hardness was measured on neat PCL (53.30° Sh D) and the highest value on PCL/PLA/CF 70/30/3.0 blend (60.13° Sh D). Stronger interfacial interactions were present at the PLA/CF interface because the interfacial free energy is closer to zero and the work of adhesion and spreading coefficient are higher than for the PCL/CF interface. The results of thermal analysis of unaged and aged blends showed that ageing for 3 weeks resulted in significantly lower thermal stability, especially for neat PCL and PCL/PLA 80/20 blends. Blends with a higher content of PLA and CF showed a slightly increased ageing resistance, which is attributed to the increased crystallinity of PLA after ageing due to the addition of CF showed in the DSC diagrams. Full article

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2021

Jump to: 2024, 2023, 2022

10 pages, 2718 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mass-Synthesized Solution-Processable Polyimide Gate Dielectrics for Electrically Stable Operating OFETs and Integrated Circuits

by Rixuan Wang, Joonjung Lee, Jisu Hong, Hyeok-jin Kwon, Heqing Ye, Juhyun Park, Chan Eon Park, Joon Ho Kim, Hyun Ho Choi, Kyuyoung Eom and Se Hyun Kim

Polymers 2021, 13(21), 3715; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13213715 - 28 Oct 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2254

Abstract

Polyimides (PIs) are widely utilized polymeric materials for high-temperature plastics, adhesives, dielectrics, nonlinear optical materials, flexible hard-coating films, and substrates for flexible electronics. PIs can be facilely mass-produced through factory methods, so the industrial application value is limitless. Herein, we synthesized a typical [...] Read more.

Polyimides (PIs) are widely utilized polymeric materials for high-temperature plastics, adhesives, dielectrics, nonlinear optical materials, flexible hard-coating films, and substrates for flexible electronics. PIs can be facilely mass-produced through factory methods, so the industrial application value is limitless. Herein, we synthesized a typical poly(amic acid) (PAA) precursor-based solution through an industrialized reactor for mass production and applied the prepared solution to form thin films of PI using thermal imidization. The deposited PI thin films were successfully applied as gate dielectrics for organic field-effect transistors (OFETs). The PI layers showed suitable characteristics for dielectrics, such as a smooth surface, low leakage current density, uniform dielectric constant (k) values regardless of frequency, and compatibility with organic semiconductors. Utilizing this PI layer, we were able to fabricate electrically stable operated OFETs, which exhibited a threshold voltage shift lower than 1 V under bias-stress conditions and a field-effect mobility of 4.29 cm² V⁻¹ s⁻¹. Moreover, integrated logic gates were manufactured using these well-operated OFETs and displayed suitable operation behavior. Full article

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20 pages, 31729 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of UV-C and Edible Nano-Coating as a Combined Strategy to Preserve Fresh-Cut Cucumber

by María L. Zambrano-Zaragoza, David Quintanar-Guerrero, Ricardo M. González-Reza, María A. Cornejo-Villegas, Gerardo Leyva-Gómez and Zaida Urbán-Morlán

Polymers 2021, 13(21), 3705; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13213705 - 27 Oct 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2004

Abstract

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a combination of UV-C disinfection treatment and a nano-coating lemon essential oil nanocapsules. The nanocapsules were prepared by ionic gelation with an alginate-pectin wall and the lemon essential oil had a particle [...] Read more.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a combination of UV-C disinfection treatment and a nano-coating lemon essential oil nanocapsules. The nanocapsules were prepared by ionic gelation with an alginate-pectin wall and the lemon essential oil had a particle size of 219 ± 22 nm and a zeta potential of −7.91 ± 0.18 mV. The lemon essential oil had an encapsulation efficiency of 68.19 ± 1.18%. The fresh-cut cucumber was stored for 15 days at 4 °C. Six formulations of nanocapsules were evaluated, and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose was used as matrix polysaccharide in four coatings. Three formulations were treated with UV-C at 4.5 kJ/m². The results showed that the combination of UV-C and nano-coatings (lemon essential oil = 200 mg/L) increased the shelf life by up to 15 days. Using UV-C and nano-coatings, the ∆E value was 7.12 at the end of the storage period, while the Control samples had an ∆E of 28.1. With nano-coating treatment, the amount of polyphenols decreased by 23% within 9 days. In contrast, with combined UV-C and nano-coating treatment, the amount of polyphenols was reduced by 38.84% within 15 days. The antioxidant capacity remained stable at 459 μmol TE/100 g for the fresh product when the combined treatment was used. A good correlation was also observed between the increasing of the fruit’s shelf life and decreasing of its enzymatic activity. The inclusion of UV-C treatment contributed to the reduction in the initial total bacteria at 3.30 log CFU/g and its combination with nano-coatings helped in the control of microbial growth during storage. Full article

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16 pages, 3465 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Partial Polymer Blend for Fused Filament Fabrication with High Thermal Stability

by Muhammad Harris, Johan Potgieter, Hammad Mohsin, Jim Qun Chen, Sudip Ray and Khalid Mahmood Arif

Polymers 2021, 13(19), 3353; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13193353 - 30 Sep 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2097

Abstract

The materials for large scale fused filament fabrication (FFF) are not yet designed to resist thermal degradation. This research presents a novel polymer blend of polylactic acid with polypropylene for FFF, purposefully designed with minimum feasible chemical grafting and overwhelming physical interlocking to [...] Read more.

The materials for large scale fused filament fabrication (FFF) are not yet designed to resist thermal degradation. This research presents a novel polymer blend of polylactic acid with polypropylene for FFF, purposefully designed with minimum feasible chemical grafting and overwhelming physical interlocking to sustain thermal degradation. Multi-level general full factorial ANOVA is performed for the analysis of thermal effects. The statistical results are further investigated and validated using different thermo-chemical and visual techniques. For example, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analyzes the effects of blending and degradation on intermolecular interactions. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) investigates the nature of blending (grafting or interlocking) and effects of degradation on thermal properties. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) validates the extent of chemical grafting and physical interlocking detected in FTIR and DSC. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is used to analyze the morphology and phase separation. The novel approach of overwhelmed physical interlocking and minimum chemical grafting for manufacturing 3D printing blends results in high structural stability (mechanical and intermolecular) against thermal degradation as compared to neat PLA. Full article

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16 pages, 2343 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synergetic Effects of Graphene Nanoplatelets/Tapioca Starch on Water-Based Drilling Muds: Enhancements in Rheological and Filtration Characteristics

by Maqsood Ahmad, Imtiaz Ali, Muhammad Syahmi Bins Safri, Mohammad Arif Izzuddin Bin Mohammad Faiz and Asif Zamir

Polymers 2021, 13(16), 2655; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13162655 - 10 Aug 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2413

Abstract

Several borehole problems are encountered during drilling a well due to improper mud design. These problems are directly associated with the rheological and filtration properties of the fluid used during drilling. Thus, it is important to investigate the mud rheological and filtration characteristics [...] Read more.

Several borehole problems are encountered during drilling a well due to improper mud design. These problems are directly associated with the rheological and filtration properties of the fluid used during drilling. Thus, it is important to investigate the mud rheological and filtration characteristics of water-based drilling muds (WBMs). Several materials have been examined but due to the higher temperature conditions of wells, such materials have degraded and lost their primary functions. In this research, an attempt was made to prepare a water-based mud by utilizing graphene nano platelets (GNP) in addition to the native tapioca starch at different ratios. The combined effect of starch and graphene nano platelets has been investigated in terms of mud’s rheological and filtration parameters, including its plastic viscosity (PV), yield point (YP), fluid loss volume (FLV) and filtercake thickness (FCT). The morphological changes in the filtercake have also been observed using Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM) micrographs. Plastic viscosity was increased from 18–35 cP, 22–31 cP and 21–28 cP for 68 °F, 250 °F and 300 °F, respectively. The yield point was also enhanced from 22–37 lb/100ft², 26–41 lb/100ft² and 24–31 lb/100ft² at the studied range. The fluid loss was dramatically reduced from 14.5–6.5 mL, 17.3–7.5 mL and 36–9.5 mL at 68 °F, 250 °F and 300 °F respectively. Similarly, filtercake thickness was also reduced which was further illustrated by filtercake morphology. Full article

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46 pages, 10396 KiB

Open AccessReview

Preparations, Properties, and Applications of Polyaniline and Polyaniline Thin Films—A Review

by Mahnoush Beygisangchin, Suraya Abdul Rashid, Suhaidi Shafie, Amir Reza Sadrolhosseini and Hong Ngee Lim

Polymers 2021, 13(12), 2003; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13122003 - 18 Jun 2021

Cited by 203 | Viewed by 20705

Abstract

Polyaniline (PANI) is a famous conductive polymer, and it has received tremendous consideration from researchers in the field of nanotechnology for the improvement of sensors, optoelectronic devices, and photonic devices. PANI is doped easily by different acids and dopants because of its easy [...] Read more.

Polyaniline (PANI) is a famous conductive polymer, and it has received tremendous consideration from researchers in the field of nanotechnology for the improvement of sensors, optoelectronic devices, and photonic devices. PANI is doped easily by different acids and dopants because of its easy synthesis and remarkable environmental stability. This review focuses on different preparation processes of PANI thin film by chemical and physical methods. Several features of PANI thin films, such as their magnetic, redox, and antioxidant, anti-corrosion, and electrical and sensing properties, are discussed in this review. PANI is a highly conductive polymer. Given its unique properties, easy synthesis, low cost, and high environmental stability in various applications such as electronics, drugs, and anti-corrosion materials, it has attracted extensive attention. The most important PANI applications are briefly reviewed at the end of this review. Full article

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17 pages, 11505 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Air Permeability, Shock Absorption Ability, and Flexural Strength of 3D-Printed Perforated ABS Polymer Sheets with 3D-Knitted Fabric Cushioning for Sports Face Guard Applications

by Thet Khaing Aung, Hiroshi Churei, Gen Tanabe, Rio Kinjo, Kaito Togawa, Chenyuan Li, Yumi Tsuchida, Phyu Sin Tun, Shwe Hlaing, Hidekazu Takahashi and Toshiaki Ueno

Polymers 2021, 13(11), 1879; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13111879 - 05 Jun 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3093 | Correction

Abstract

Sports face guards (FGs) are devices that protect athletes from maxillofacial injury or ensure rapid return to play following orofacial damage. Conventional FGs are uncomfortable to wear owing to stuffiness caused by poor ventilation and often slip off due to increase in weight [...] Read more.

Sports face guards (FGs) are devices that protect athletes from maxillofacial injury or ensure rapid return to play following orofacial damage. Conventional FGs are uncomfortable to wear owing to stuffiness caused by poor ventilation and often slip off due to increase in weight due to absorption of moisture from perspiration, lowering players’ performance. Herein, combinations of 3D-printed perforated acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) polymer sheets and 3D-knitted fabrics with honeycomb structures as cushioning materials were investigated to balance better wearing feel and mechanical properties. The flexural strength, weight, and shock absorption ability of, and air flow rate through, the ABS sheets with five different perforation patterns were evaluated and compared with those of conventional FG materials comprising a combination of polycaprolactone sheets for the medical splint and polychloroprene rubber for the cushioning material. The ABS sheets having 10% open area and 2.52 mm round holes, combined with knitted fabric cushioning, exhibited the requisite shock absorbing, higher air permeability, and lower weight properties than the conventional materials. Our results suggest that FGs fabricated using combinations of 3D-printed perforated ABS polymer sheets and 3D-knitted fabrics with honeycomb structures may impart enhanced wearing comfort for athletes. Full article

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18 pages, 555 KiB

Open AccessReview

Cyclodextrin Monomers and Polymers for Drug Activity Enhancement

by Adrián Matencio, Gjylije Hoti, Yousef Khazaei Monfared, Azam Rezayat, Alberto Rubin Pedrazzo, Fabrizio Caldera and Francesco Trotta

Polymers 2021, 13(11), 1684; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13111684 - 21 May 2021

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3528

Abstract

Cyclodextrins (CDs) and cyclodextrin (CD)-based polymers are well-known complexing agents. One of their distinctive features is to increase the quantity of a drug in a solution or improve its delivery. However, in certain instances, the activity of the solutions is increased not only [...] Read more.

Cyclodextrins (CDs) and cyclodextrin (CD)-based polymers are well-known complexing agents. One of their distinctive features is to increase the quantity of a drug in a solution or improve its delivery. However, in certain instances, the activity of the solutions is increased not only due to the increase of the drug dose but also due to the drug complexation. Based on numerous studies reviewed, the drug appeared more active in a complex form. This review aims to summarize the performance of CDs and CD-based polymers as activity enhancers. Accordingly, the review is divided into two parts, i.e., the effect of CDs as active drugs and as enhancers in antimicrobials, antivirals, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, neuroprotective agents, and antioxidants. Full article

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25 pages, 10100 KiB

Open AccessReview

Polymer Cold-Flow Improvers for Biodiesel

by Ilya Nifant’ev and Pavel Ivchenko

Polymers 2021, 13(10), 1580; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13101580 - 14 May 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3350

Abstract

In recent decades, biodiesel has been explored as a prospective comparable fuel to petroleum diesel for compression ignition engines. However, several drawbacks have limited the wide application of biodiesel as motor fuel, and the poor cold-flow property is one of the major problems. [...] Read more.

In recent decades, biodiesel has been explored as a prospective comparable fuel to petroleum diesel for compression ignition engines. However, several drawbacks have limited the wide application of biodiesel as motor fuel, and the poor cold-flow property is one of the major problems. This problem is compounded by the diversity of the biodiesel characteristics arising from a variety of chemical compositions of biodiesel from different sources. Among the methods investigated to improve the cold-flow properties of biodiesel, the use of additives seems highly promising. Despite the significant number of publications, the potential of this method is still far from having been completely discovered or exploited. In the present review, we briefly describe the sources, chemical composition, and physico-chemical characteristics of the main types of biodiesel. Next, we discuss the examples of the use of different polymer additives for the improvement of the cold-flow characteristics of biodiesel and biodiesel/petroleum diesel blends. Additionally, we tried to assess the prospects of the polymer additives to enhance biodiesel performance. The main conclusion of this survey is that innovative and high-efficiency cold-flow improvers for biodiesel should be further developed. Full article

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8 pages, 2269 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sensitive, Color-Indicating and Labeling-Free Multi-Detection Cholesteric Liquid Crystal Biosensing Chips for Detecting Albumin

by I-Te Wang, Yen-Hua Lee, Er-Yuan Chuang and Yu-Cheng Hsiao

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1463; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091463 - 01 May 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2198

Abstract

A novel device for cholesteric liquid crystal (CLC)-based microfluidic chips, accommodated in a polydimethylsiloxane material, was invented. In this device, the reorientation of the CLCs was consistently influenced by the surface of the four channel walls and adjacent CLCs. When the inside of [...] Read more.

A novel device for cholesteric liquid crystal (CLC)-based microfluidic chips, accommodated in a polydimethylsiloxane material, was invented. In this device, the reorientation of the CLCs was consistently influenced by the surface of the four channel walls and adjacent CLCs. When the inside of the microchannel was coated with the alignment layer, the CLCs oriented homeotropically in a focal conic state under cross-polarizers. Once antigens had bound onto antibodies immobilized onto the orientation sheet-coated channel walls, the light intensity of the CLC molecules converted from a focal conic state to a bright planar state caused by disrupting the CLCs. By means of utilizing pressure-propelling flow, the attachment of antigen/antibody to the CLCs should be detectable within consecutive sequences. The multi-microfluidic CLC-based chips were verified by measuring bovine serum albumin (BSA) and immune complexes of pairs of BSA antigen/antibody. We showed that the multiple microfluidic immunoassaying can be used for measuring BSA and pairs of antigen/antibody BSA with a detection limit of about 1 ng/mL. The linear range is 0.1 μg/mL–1 mg/mL. A limit of immune detection of pairs of BSA antigens/antibodies was 10 ng/mL of BSA plus 1000 ng/mL of the anti-BSA antibodies was observed. According to this innovative creation of immunoassaying, an unsophisticated multi-detection device with CLC-based labeling-free microfluidic chips is presented. Full article

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30 pages, 5060 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Progress in Polysaccharide Aerogels: Their Synthesis, Application, and Future Outlook

by Arbanah Muhammad, Dabin Lee, Yonghun Shin and Juhyun Park

Polymers 2021, 13(8), 1347; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13081347 - 20 Apr 2021

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 5555

Abstract

Porous polysaccharides have recently attracted attention due to their porosity, abundance, and excellent properties such as sustainability and biocompatibility, thereby resulting in their numerous applications. Recent years have seen a rise in the number of studies on the utilization of polysaccharides such as [...] Read more.

Porous polysaccharides have recently attracted attention due to their porosity, abundance, and excellent properties such as sustainability and biocompatibility, thereby resulting in their numerous applications. Recent years have seen a rise in the number of studies on the utilization of polysaccharides such as cellulose, chitosan, chitin, and starch as aerogels due to their unique performance for the fabrication of porous structures. The present review explores recent progress in porous polysaccharides, particularly cellulose and chitosan, including their synthesis, application, and future outlook. Since the synthetic process is an important aspect of aerogel formation, particularly during the drying step, the process is reviewed in some detail, and a comparison is drawn between the supercritical CO₂ and freeze drying processes in order to understand the aerogel formation of porous polysaccharides. Finally, the current applications of polysaccharide aerogels in drug delivery, wastewater, wound dressing, and air filtration are explored, and the limitations and outlook of the porous aerogels are discussed with respect to their future commercialization. Full article

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