Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023

A special issue of Plasma (ISSN 2571-6182).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2023) | Viewed by 33092

Special Issue Editor

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08540, USA
Interests: nonequilibrium plasma; pulsed discharges; plasmachemistry; combustion; detonation waves; shock waves; plasma aerodynamics
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Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue entitled “Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023” aims to collect high-quality original research articles, communications, and review papers in the cutting-edge field of plasma sciences. We encourage Editorial Board Members of Plasma (https://www.mdpi.com/journal/plasma/editors) to contribute feature papers that reflect the latest progress in their research field or to invite relevant experts and colleagues to do so.

The publications in the first volume, which we believe may be of interest to you, can be found here: https://www.mdpi.com/journal/plasma/special_issues/plasmafp.

Prof. Dr. Andrey Starikovskiy
Guest Editor

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26 pages, 3540 KiB  
Article
About the Data Analysis of Optical Emission Spectra of Reactive Ion Etching Processes—The Method of Spectral Redundancy Reduction
by Micha Haase, Mudassir Ali Sayyed, Jan Langer, Danny Reuter and Harald Kuhn
Plasma 2024, 7(1), 258-283; https://doi.org/10.3390/plasma7010015 - 20 Mar 2024
Viewed by 481
Abstract
In this study, we present the Method of Spectral Redundancy Reduction (MSRR) for analyzing OES (optical emission spectroscopy) data of dry etching processes based on the principles of spectral clustering. To achieve this, the OES data are transformed into abstract graph matrices whose [...] Read more.
In this study, we present the Method of Spectral Redundancy Reduction (MSRR) for analyzing OES (optical emission spectroscopy) data of dry etching processes based on the principles of spectral clustering. To achieve this, the OES data are transformed into abstract graph matrices whose associated eigenvectors directly indicate anomalies in the data set. We developed an approach that allows for the reduction in temporally resolved optical emission spectra from plasma structuring processes in such a way that individual emission lines can be algorithmically detected, which exhibit a temporal behavior different from the collective behavior of the temporally resolved overall spectrum. The proportion of emission lines that behave consistently throughout the entire process duration is not considered. Our work may find applications in which OES is used as a process-monitoring technique, especially for low-pressure plasma processing. The major benefit of the developed method is that the scale of the original data is kept, making physical interpretations possible despite data reductions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023)
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23 pages, 10884 KiB  
Article
Practical Model for the Calculation of Lateral Electromagnetic Loads in Tokamaks at Asymmetric Vertical Displacement Events (AVDEs)
by Sergey Sadakov, Fabio Villone, Daniel Iglesias, Luis Maqueda, Jesus Almenara-Rescalvo, Guglielmo Rubinacci and Salvatore Ventre
Plasma 2024, 7(1), 178-200; https://doi.org/10.3390/plasma7010012 - 13 Mar 2024
Viewed by 473
Abstract
This paper describes a new practical numerical model for the calculation of lateral electromagnetic (EM) loads in tokamaks during asymmetric vertical displacement events (AVDEs). The model combines key features of two recently reported trial models while avoiding their drawbacks. Their common basic feature [...] Read more.
This paper describes a new practical numerical model for the calculation of lateral electromagnetic (EM) loads in tokamaks during asymmetric vertical displacement events (AVDEs). The model combines key features of two recently reported trial models while avoiding their drawbacks. Their common basic feature is the superposition of two patterns of halo current: one perfectly symmetric and another perfectly anti-symmetric. This model combines the following features that have not been combined before (a) a helically distorted halo layer wrapping around core plasma, and (b) halo-to-wall interception belts slipping along plasma-facing walls. This combination almost doubles the lateral net forces. An AVDE creates significant lateral net moments. Being relatively modest at VDEs, the lateral moments become a dominant component of EM loads at AVDEs. The model carefully tracks the balance of net EM loads (zero total for the tokamak), as a necessary condition for the consequent numerical simulation of the tokamak’s dynamic response. This balance is needed as well for the development of tokamak monitoring algorithms and simulators. In order to decouple from the current uncertainties in the interpretation and simulation of AVDE physics, the model does not simulate AVDE evolution but uses it as an input assumption based on the existing interpretation and simulation of AVDE physics. This means the model is to be used in a manner of parametric study, at widely varied input assumptions on AVDE evolution and severity. Parametric results will fill a library of ready-for-use waveforms of asymmetric EM loads (distributed and total) at tokamak structures and coils, so that the physics community may point to specific variants for subsequent engineering analysis. This article presents the first practical contribution to this AVDE library. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023)
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15 pages, 984 KiB  
Article
Rapid Access to Empirical Impact Ionization Cross Sections for Atoms and Ions across the Periodic Table
by Stephan Fritzsche, Liguang Jiao and Giorgio Visentin
Plasma 2024, 7(1), 106-120; https://doi.org/10.3390/plasma7010008 - 30 Jan 2024
Viewed by 818
Abstract
Electron-impact ionization (EII) processes are essential for modelling high-temperature plasma in quite different research areas, from astrophysics to material science to plasma and fusion research and in several places elsewhere. In most, if not all, of these fields, partial and total EII cross [...] Read more.
Electron-impact ionization (EII) processes are essential for modelling high-temperature plasma in quite different research areas, from astrophysics to material science to plasma and fusion research and in several places elsewhere. In most, if not all, of these fields, partial and total EII cross sections are required, and often for a good range of electron energies, in order to determine, for instance, the level population of ions and spectral line intensities in plasma under both local and non-local thermodynamic equilibrium conditions. To obey these needs, various kinds of semi-empirical EII cross sections have been applied in practice, often simply because of the large computational demands in dealing explicitly with two free electrons within the continuum. Here, we expand Jac, the Jena Atomic Calculator, to provide such empirical EII cross sections for (most) atoms and ions across the periodic table. Five empirical models from the recent literature have been implemented to support a simple and rapid access to the partial EII cross sections for electrons from a (partly filled) shell (n)q as well as the total ionization cross sections. We here restrict ourselves to the direct part of the EII cross section, whereas the impact excitation of electrons with subsequent autoionization and the resonant electron capture with double autoionization have been left aside in this first implementation. Rapid access to the (direct) EII cross sections will help already to better understand the role of electron-impact processes in the diagnostics of fusion plasma or the interpretation of astrophysical spectra. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023)
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16 pages, 8697 KiB  
Article
Thermal Plasma Spheroidization and Characterization of Stainless Steel Powders Using Direct Current Plasma Technology
by Pierpaolo Iovane, Carmela Borriello, Giuseppe Pandolfi, Sabrina Portofino, Gabriella Rametta, Loredana Tammaro, Nicola Fedele and Sergio Galvagno
Plasma 2024, 7(1), 76-90; https://doi.org/10.3390/plasma7010006 - 23 Jan 2024
Viewed by 925
Abstract
The production of spherical powders has recently registered a boost due to the need to fabricate new printing materials for Additive Manufacturing applications, from polymers and resins to metals and ceramics. Among these materials, stainless steels powders play a leading role, since they [...] Read more.
The production of spherical powders has recently registered a boost due to the need to fabricate new printing materials for Additive Manufacturing applications, from polymers and resins to metals and ceramics. Among these materials, stainless steels powders play a leading role, since they are widely used in industry and everyday life; indeed, micron-sized spherical stainless steel powders have specific characteristics and are considered as one of the best candidates for Additive Manufacturing systems and for application in a wide range of sectors. In this paper, stainless steel 316 L powders were used to explore and identify the best process parameters of a thermal plasma process able to produce spherical powders for Additive Manufacturing applications. X-ray Diffraction, Scanning Electron Microscopy, Particle Size Distribution and Flowability analysis were performed to characterize reagents and products. Powders with a high circularity (>0.8) and improved flowability (<30 s/50 g) were successfully obtained. The collected results were compared with data available from the literature to identify the potential use of the spherical produced powders. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023)
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15 pages, 16835 KiB  
Article
A Semi-Empirical Model of Cathodic Arc Spot Motion under the Influence of External Magnetic Fields
by Achim Mahrle, Otmar Zimmer, Steffen Schenk, Madlen Borkmann and Christoph Leyens
Plasma 2024, 7(1), 1-15; https://doi.org/10.3390/plasma7010001 - 19 Dec 2023
Viewed by 1221
Abstract
Plasma generation by cathodic arc spots plays a crucial role for coating processes that make use of the Arc-PVD technology. Usually, the arc spot motion over the cathode is steered by a magnetic field of a particular distribution and magnitude to ensure a [...] Read more.
Plasma generation by cathodic arc spots plays a crucial role for coating processes that make use of the Arc-PVD technology. Usually, the arc spot motion over the cathode is steered by a magnetic field of a particular distribution and magnitude to ensure a continuous plasma generation, the avoidance of liquid droplets, and a proper utilization of cathode material by homogeneous erosion. This study presents a semi-empirical model that allows for an examination and characterization of the arc spot motion with regard to direction and speed as a function of an imposed magnetic field. This model considers the different components of random walk, retrograde, and Robson drift motion. Introduced empirical coefficients were determined by corresponding experimental investigations. The calibrated model describes the arc spot motion in good agreement to the recorded spot tracks and can therefore be applied for an evaluation of different magnetic field configurations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023)
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21 pages, 13047 KiB  
Article
Experimental Progress in the Development of a Metal Foil Pump for DEMO
by Yannick Kathage, Alejandro Vazquez Cortes, Stefan Merli, Christian Day, Thomas Giegerich, Stefan Hanke, Juri Igitkhanov, Andreas Schulz and Matthias Walker
Plasma 2023, 6(4), 714-734; https://doi.org/10.3390/plasma6040049 - 28 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1265
Abstract
Experimental findings to contribute to the preliminary design of a metal foil pump for fuel separation in the Direct Internal Recycling loop of the DEMO fusion device are presented. In parametric studies on a small-scale superpermeation experiment with a microwave plasma source and [...] Read more.
Experimental findings to contribute to the preliminary design of a metal foil pump for fuel separation in the Direct Internal Recycling loop of the DEMO fusion device are presented. In parametric studies on a small-scale superpermeation experiment with a microwave plasma source and two different metal foil materials, niobium Nb and vanadium V, a substantial increase in permeation with plasma power and with a decrease in pressure was observed. To ease operation in the typical fusion environment, in-situ heating procedures were developed to recover from impurity contamination. The temperature independence of plasma-driven permeation from 600 to 900 °C metal foil temperature was demonstrated. No proof of an isotopic effect for plasma-driven permeation of protium and deuterium could be found. The highest repeatable permeation flux achieved was 6.7 Pa∙m3/(m2∙s) or ~5.5 × 10−3 mol H/(m2∙s). The found compression ratios do safely allow the operation of the metal foil pump using ejector pumps as backing stages for the permeate. In a dedicated experimental setup, the operation of the plasma source in a strong magnetic field was tested. Parametric studies of pressure, power input, magnetic flux density, field gradient and field angle are presented. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023)
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15 pages, 2801 KiB  
Article
Generation of Plasma-Activated Fluids for Successful Disinfection of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in Liquid Environments and Determination of Microbial Damage
by Mareike Hummert, Paul Leenders, Alexander Mellmann, Karsten Becker and Thorsten Kuczius
Plasma 2023, 6(4), 699-713; https://doi.org/10.3390/plasma6040048 - 21 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1383
Abstract
The application of the non-thermal atmospheric pressure plasma technology is a promising tool for microbial inactivation. During the activation process, many reactive substances and radicals arise associated with physicochemical changes in the fluid and massive pH drop. In this study, we analyzed and [...] Read more.
The application of the non-thermal atmospheric pressure plasma technology is a promising tool for microbial inactivation. During the activation process, many reactive substances and radicals arise associated with physicochemical changes in the fluid and massive pH drop. In this study, we analyzed and optimized plasma activation settings and conditions of water and liquids to obtain inactivation of the waterborne microorganism Pseudomonas aeruginosa in a liquid environment. The minimal electrical output was 60 Watt with 20 min activation time followed by 30 min contact time with 108 cells/mL. Using higher electrical power (>90 W) with a Lab Unit generating plasma-activated water, a shorter activation time (<10 min) was sufficient for bacterial inactivation. The organic and inorganic composition of the activated liquid with different mineral salt concentrations is of utmost importance for the yield of reactive species during the plasma activation process and consequently for the antimicrobial effect. Plasma-activated fluids with high organic and inorganic contents demonstrated lower inactivation efficiencies than low loaded fluids; yet antimicrobial efficacy could be achieved by increasing the electrical power and activation time. For sufficient inactivation of bacterial suspensions, at least half a volume unit of plasma-activated water had to be added after appropriately optimized activation. Further dilutions reduced the antimicrobial effect. PAW lost activity after being left standing for a prolonged time after activation, so for maximizing the antimicrobial effect a direct use after activation is recommendable. Bacterial inactivation was shown by the absence of colony forming units on culture media and, at the molecular level, damage to the membrane and inactivation of enzymes were observed. Plasma-activated fluids demonstrated a high potential in applications as microbiological disinfectant in liquids. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023)
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19 pages, 8992 KiB  
Article
Influence of Voltage, Pulselength and Presence of a Reverse Polarized Pulse on an Argon–Gold Plasma during a High-Power Impulse Magnetron Sputtering Process
by Jürgen Guljakow and Walter Lang
Plasma 2023, 6(4), 680-698; https://doi.org/10.3390/plasma6040047 - 20 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1204
Abstract
This work aims to provide information about the deposition of gold via bipolar high-power impulse magnetron sputtering (HIPIMS) in order to identify suitable process parameters. The influences of voltage, pulse length and the kick-pulse on an argon–gold plasma during a bipolar high-power impulse [...] Read more.
This work aims to provide information about the deposition of gold via bipolar high-power impulse magnetron sputtering (HIPIMS) in order to identify suitable process parameters. The influences of voltage, pulse length and the kick-pulse on an argon–gold plasma during a bipolar high-power impulse magnetron sputtering deposition process were analysed via optical emission spectroscopy (OES) and oscilloscope. The voltage was varied between 700 V and 1000 V, the pulse length was varied between 20 µs and 100 µs and the process was observed once with kick-pulse and once without. The influence of the voltage on the plasma was more pronounced than the influence of the pulse width. While the intensity of several Au I lines increased up to 13-fold with increasing voltages, only a less-than linear increase in Au I brightness with time could be identified for changes in pulse length. The intensity of excited argon is only minimally affected by changes in voltages, but follows the evolution of the discharge current, with increasing pulse lengths. Contrary to the excited argon, the intensity emitted by ionized argon grows nearly linearly with voltage and pulse length. The reverse polarised pulse mainly affects the excited argon atoms in the plasma, while the influence on the ionized argon is less pronounced, as can be seen in the the spectra. Unlike the excited argon atoms, the excited gold atoms appear to be completely unaffected by the kick-pulse. No ionization of gold was observed. During the pulse, a strong rarefaction of plasma takes place. Very short pulses of less than 50 µs and high voltages of about 1000 V are to be preferred for the deposition of gold layers. This paper offers a comprehensive overview of the gold spectrum during a HIPIMS process and makes use of optical emission spectroscopy as a simple measuring approach for evaluation of the reverse polarized pulse during a bipolar process. Future uses of the process may include the metallization of polymers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023)
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17 pages, 8561 KiB  
Article
Penetration of a Pulsed Guided Streamer Discharge into Micrometer-Sized Capillary Tubes
by Samyak Jain and Peter J. Bruggeman
Plasma 2023, 6(4), 663-679; https://doi.org/10.3390/plasma6040046 - 01 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1171
Abstract
The penetration and propagation of streamers in capillary tubes is critical for applications involving the plasma-enabled disinfection of medical devices like catheters and plasma catalysis. In this study, a guided streamer is generated in a pulsed plasma jet operating in helium and impinged [...] Read more.
The penetration and propagation of streamers in capillary tubes is critical for applications involving the plasma-enabled disinfection of medical devices like catheters and plasma catalysis. In this study, a guided streamer is generated in a pulsed plasma jet operating in helium and impinged downstream onto a capillary tube with an inner diameter between 75 and 500 µm. The threshold voltage required to start the penetration of the guided streamer into the capillary was determined for both positive and negative polarities, and we observed a time delay between the streamer striking the top of the capillary and its penetration, which was found to be larger for the positive than the negative streamer. The observed differences can be explained by the need to sustain an electric field large enough to generate a sufficient seed electron density in the capillary to launch the streamer. The reported results suggest that the electric field at the capillary inlet is likely reduced by the formation of strong surface ionization waves for positive streamers. Nonetheless, in the case of positive streamers, the formation of surface streamers along the outside of the capillary wall can enhance streamer penetration into the capillary and the streamer propagation speed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023)
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14 pages, 4731 KiB  
Article
Microanalysis of Active Nitrogen Oxides (RONS) Generation Characteristics during DC Negative Corona Discharge at a Needle-Plate Electrode
by Jinqiang Shi, Fubao Jin, Shangang Ma, Xinhe Liu, Xuejian Leng and Keyuan Chen
Plasma 2023, 6(4), 649-662; https://doi.org/10.3390/plasma6040045 - 27 Oct 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1065
Abstract
The DC negative corona of needle-plate electrodes can generate atmospheric pressure low-temperature plasma active particles, which have important effects on biological mutagenesis. The DC negative corona discharge of an air needle-plate electrode with effective consideration of NOx particles was simulated and the [...] Read more.
The DC negative corona of needle-plate electrodes can generate atmospheric pressure low-temperature plasma active particles, which have important effects on biological mutagenesis. The DC negative corona discharge of an air needle-plate electrode with effective consideration of NOx particles was simulated and the Trichel pulse current was obtained, focusing on the development of particles and the distribution of active nitrogen oxides (RONS) at four moments in the pulse process. The simulation results indicate that the positive ions (N2+ and O2+) and negative ions (O and O2) were closely related to the current changes, and the negative ions (O and O2) presented a typical stratification phenomenon. RONS (H2O2, O3, and NO) were approximately uniformly distributed above the level of the plate electrode at the same instant, with H2O2 and O3 except for the area below the needle tip. They trended to a cumulative increase in concentration with time. This study provides a theoretical basis for corona discharge plasma seed treatment technology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023)
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19 pages, 2713 KiB  
Article
Study of Atmospheric Plasma-Based Mass Separation System for High-Level Radioactive Waste Treatment
by Sharif Abu Darda and Hossam A. Gabbar
Plasma 2023, 6(3), 592-610; https://doi.org/10.3390/plasma6030041 - 15 Sep 2023
Viewed by 2383
Abstract
Solid spent nuclear fuel from nuclear power plants contains 3.4% fission products (80–160 amu), contributing to a radioactivity level of over 99.8%. On the other hand, liquid high-level radioactive waste (HLRW) from spent fuel reprocessing is composed of 98.9% bulk elements (0–60 amu) [...] Read more.
Solid spent nuclear fuel from nuclear power plants contains 3.4% fission products (80–160 amu), contributing to a radioactivity level of over 99.8%. On the other hand, liquid high-level radioactive waste (HLRW) from spent fuel reprocessing is composed of 98.9% bulk elements (0–60 amu) with 0.1% radioactivity. A separation mechanism for the mass categories into groups presents unique opportunities for managing HLRW in the long term with a considerable cost reduction. This paper proposes a thermal plasma-based separation system incorporating atmospheric-pressure plasma torches for HLRW mass separation into low-resolution mass groups. Several engineering issues must be addressed, such as waste preparation, waste injection into the plasma, and waste collecting after mass separation. Using the COMSOL Multiphysics simulation, the generic system can be studied using noble gas mass separation, and the mass filter capabilities can be further analyzed. This paper provides the history of plasma-based mass separation. The functional modelling of a thermal plasma mass separation system is proposed under atmospheric pressure. Finally, aspects of mass separation simulation using the noble gases argon and helium inside the plasma mass separation system are studied via COMSOL Multiphysics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023)
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14 pages, 1777 KiB  
Article
Plasma Polymerized Organosilicon Thin Films for Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) Detection
by Ghadi Dakroub, Thomas Duguet, Corinne Lacaze-Dufaure, Stéphanie Roualdes, Arie van der Lee, Diane Rebiscoul and Vincent Rouessac
Plasma 2023, 6(3), 563-576; https://doi.org/10.3390/plasma6030039 - 15 Sep 2023
Viewed by 936
Abstract
Plasma polymerized (PP) thin films deposited in a soft or intermediate plasma discharge from hexamethyldisiloxane (HMDSO) were developed as sensors for the detection of volatile organic compound (VOC) vapors. Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) and X-ray reflectometry (XRR) were performed to determine the [...] Read more.
Plasma polymerized (PP) thin films deposited in a soft or intermediate plasma discharge from hexamethyldisiloxane (HMDSO) were developed as sensors for the detection of volatile organic compound (VOC) vapors. Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) and X-ray reflectometry (XRR) were performed to determine the organosilicon films’ elemental composition and density. Spectroscopic ellipsometry measurements were carried out to determine the refractive index of the films. Quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) and ellipsometry coupled to vapor sorption were used to investigate the sorption mechanism of several VOC vapors into the films as a function of the plasma deposition conditions. The density and the refractive index of the PP-HMDSO films increased with the plasma energy due to a different chemical composition and different proportion of free volumes in the material network. The PP-HMDSO films showed different affinities towards the VOC vapors depending on the plasma discharge energy. The films elaborated in the lowest plasma energy revealed a good sensitivity towards the VOCs, especially toluene (one of the BTEX vapors), compared to the other films deposited under higher plasma energy. In addition, the selectivity between toluene and other non-BTEX VOCs such as heptane and ethanol decreased to become zero while increasing the plasma energy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023)
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13 pages, 2896 KiB  
Article
2D Fluid-PIC Simulations of Hall Thrusters with Self-Consistent Resolution of the Space-Charge Regions
by Alejandro Lopez Ortega and Ioannis G. Mikellides
Plasma 2023, 6(3), 550-562; https://doi.org/10.3390/plasma6030038 - 11 Sep 2023
Viewed by 1106
Abstract
Many hybrid simulations of Hall thrusters, where electrons and ions are solved using hydrodynamics and particle-in-cell methods, respectively, assume that the ionized gas is quasi-neutral everywhere in the computational domain and apply so-called thin-sheath approximations to account for space-charge effects near solid boundaries. [...] Read more.
Many hybrid simulations of Hall thrusters, where electrons and ions are solved using hydrodynamics and particle-in-cell methods, respectively, assume that the ionized gas is quasi-neutral everywhere in the computational domain and apply so-called thin-sheath approximations to account for space-charge effects near solid boundaries. These approximations do not hold along boundaries near the exit of the thruster or in the near plume regions, where the plasma conditions can lead to Debye lengths on the order of or higher than the local grid resolution. We present a numerical scheme that fully resolves the conditions of the ionized gas in space-charge regions of any thickness and that is coupled consistently to a global hybrid simulation of Hall thrusters. We verify the numerical results with the closed-form solution for a Langmuir sheath in a simplified one-dimensional example, and then again in simulations where the model is integrated in a 2D multifluid/PIC axial–radial code called Hall2De. The new capability to resolve numerically large sheaths around solid boundaries in Hall thrusters allows for significantly more accurate assessments of ion sputtering, thus improving thruster lifetime predictions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023)
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23 pages, 11224 KiB  
Article
Exospheric Solar Wind Model Based on Regularized Kappa Distributions for the Electrons Constrained by Parker Solar Probe Observations
by Viviane Pierrard, Maximilien Péters de Bonhome, Jasper Halekas, Charline Audoor, Phyllis Whittlesey and Roberto Livi
Plasma 2023, 6(3), 518-540; https://doi.org/10.3390/plasma6030036 - 24 Aug 2023
Viewed by 964
Abstract
In the present work, the kinetic exospheric model of the solar wind is improved by considering regularized Kappa distributions that have no diverging moments through consideration of a cut-off at relativistic velocities. The model becomes valid even for kappa indices lower than 2, [...] Read more.
In the present work, the kinetic exospheric model of the solar wind is improved by considering regularized Kappa distributions that have no diverging moments through consideration of a cut-off at relativistic velocities. The model becomes valid even for kappa indices lower than 2, which is important since low values of kappa are observed in the fast solar wind. The exospheric model shows that the electric potential accelerates the wind to supersonic velocities. The presence of suprathermal Strahl electrons at the exobase can further increase the velocity to higher values, leading to profiles comparable to the observations in the fast and slow wind at all radial distances. The kappa index is not the only parameter that influences the acceleration of the wind: the difference in the altitude of the exobase also makes a significant difference between the fast and slow wind. The exobase is located at lower altitudes in the coronal holes where the density is smaller than in the other regions of the corona, allowing the wind originating from the holes to be accelerated to higher velocities. The new observations of Parker Solar Probe are used to constrain the model. The observations at low radial distances show suprathermal electrons already well present in the Strahl in the antisunward direction and a deficit in the sunward direction, confirming the exospheric feature of almost no incoming particles. For proton distributions, we observe that the proton tail parallel to the magnetic field is already present at 17.2 Rs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023)
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15 pages, 1333 KiB  
Article
Ion Acoustic Breathers in Electron-Beam Plasma
by Manveet Kaur, Sunidhi Singla, Nareshpal Singh Saini and Fateh Singh Gill
Plasma 2023, 6(3), 503-517; https://doi.org/10.3390/plasma6030035 - 16 Aug 2023
Viewed by 820
Abstract
The nonlinear excitations of ion acoustic (IA) structures in an electron beam embedded plasma composed of Vasyliunas–Cairns (VC) distributed hot electrons has been studied. The nonlinear Schrödinger equation (NLSE) from the Kadomtsev–Petviashvili (KP) equation with suitable transformation has been derived from rational solutions [...] Read more.
The nonlinear excitations of ion acoustic (IA) structures in an electron beam embedded plasma composed of Vasyliunas–Cairns (VC) distributed hot electrons has been studied. The nonlinear Schrödinger equation (NLSE) from the Kadomtsev–Petviashvili (KP) equation with suitable transformation has been derived from rational solutions of NLSE; breathers have been studied. It has been shown that the nonthermality and superthermality of the electrons, the electron beam density, and the beam velocity alter the characteristics of different kinds of breathers. This investigation may be important in interpreting the physics of nonlinear structures in the upper layer of magnetosphere. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023)
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11 pages, 1448 KiB  
Article
Plasma Energy Loss by Cathode Heat Conduction in a Vacuum Arc: Cathode Effective Voltage
by Isak I. Beilis
Plasma 2023, 6(3), 492-502; https://doi.org/10.3390/plasma6030034 - 11 Aug 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 802
Abstract
The importance of understanding the energy loss specifics by the cathode for vacuum arc metallic plasma generation and its applications were emphasized. To this end, the heat conduction losses per unit current were characterized by the cathode effective voltage uef, which [...] Read more.
The importance of understanding the energy loss specifics by the cathode for vacuum arc metallic plasma generation and its applications were emphasized. To this end, the heat conduction losses per unit current were characterized by the cathode effective voltage uef, which is weakly dependent on the current. In this paper, a physical model and a mathematical approach were developed to describe the energy dissipation due to heat conduction in the cathode body, which is heated by energy outflowed from the adjacent plasma. The arc plasma generation was considered by taking into account the kinetics of the heavy particle fluxes in the non-equilibrium layer near the vaporizing surface. The phenomena of electric sheath, heat and mass transfer at the cathode were taken into account. The self-consistent numerical analysis was performed with a system of equations for a copper cathode spot. The transient analysis starts from the spot initiation, modeled by the plasma arising at the initial time determined by the kind of arc triggering, up to spot development. The results of the calculations show that the cathode effective voltage uef is determined by the cathode temperature as a function of spot time. The calculated evolution of the voltage uef shows that the steady state of uef is approximately 7 V, and it is reached when the cathode temperature reaches a steady state at approximately one microsecond. This essential result provides an explanation for the good agreement with the experimental cathode effective voltage (6–8 V) measured for the arc duration from one millisecond up to a few seconds. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023)
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14 pages, 2874 KiB  
Article
Optimization of Electron-Beam Evaporation Process Parameters for ZrN Thin Films by Plasma Treatment and Taguchi Method
by Chuen-Lin Tien, Chun-Yu Chiang and Shih-Chin Lin
Plasma 2023, 6(3), 478-491; https://doi.org/10.3390/plasma6030033 - 04 Aug 2023
Viewed by 1240
Abstract
This study presents the optimal process parameters of zirconium nitride (ZrN) thin films prepared by ion-assisted deposition (IAD) technology combined with electron-beam evaporation based on plasma surface treatment and the Taguchi method. We use Minitab statistical software (Version 20.2.0) and L9 orthogonal array [...] Read more.
This study presents the optimal process parameters of zirconium nitride (ZrN) thin films prepared by ion-assisted deposition (IAD) technology combined with electron-beam evaporation based on plasma surface treatment and the Taguchi method. We use Minitab statistical software (Version 20.2.0) and L9 orthogonal array parameter design combined with the response surface method (RSM). The quadratic polynomial regression equation was optimized by the RSM. Based on the control factor screening test of the Taguchi method, we determined the most critical factor combination for the process and derived the optimized process parameters of the ZrN thin films. In the coating experiments, we successfully achieved the optimal combination of good refractive index, adequate residual stress, and lower surface roughness on B270 glass substrates. These results indicate that the optimized preparation process can simultaneously achieve several desirable properties, improving the performance and application of ZrN thin films. Furthermore, our research method not only reduces the number of experiments and costs but also improves the efficiency of research and development. By screening key factors and optimizing process parameters, we can find the best process parameter more rapidly, reduce the demand for expenses given materials and equipment costs, and contribute to improving the electron-beam evaporation process. According to the experimental results, it can be observed that under certain conditions, the properties of ZrN thin films reached optimal values. These results are highly useful for optimizing the process parameters of ZrN thin films and provide a basis for further improvement of the thin film properties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023)
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16 pages, 1222 KiB  
Article
Plasma-Assisted Abatement of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS): Thermodynamic Analysis and Validation in Gliding Arc Discharge
by Mikaela J. Surace, Jimmy Murillo-Gelvez, Mobish A. Shaji, Alexander A. Fridman, Alexander Rabinovich, Erica R. McKenzie, Gregory Fridman and Christopher M. Sales
Plasma 2023, 6(3), 419-434; https://doi.org/10.3390/plasma6030029 - 17 Jul 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1474
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a group of synthetic organofluorine surfactants that are resistant to typical methods of degradation. Thermal techniques along with other novel, less energy-intensive techniques are currently being investigated for the treatment of PFAS-contaminated matrices. Non-equilibrium plasma is one [...] Read more.
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a group of synthetic organofluorine surfactants that are resistant to typical methods of degradation. Thermal techniques along with other novel, less energy-intensive techniques are currently being investigated for the treatment of PFAS-contaminated matrices. Non-equilibrium plasma is one technique that has shown promise for the treatment of PFAS-contaminated water. To better tailor non-equilibrium plasma systems for this application, knowledge of the energy required for mineralization, and in turn the roles that plasma reactive species and heat can play in this process, would be useful. In this study, fundamental thermodynamic equations were used to estimate the enthalpies of reaction (480 kJ/mol) and formation (−4640 kJ/mol) of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA, a long-chain legacy PFAS) in water. This enthalpy of reaction estimate indicates that plasma reactive species alone cannot catalyze the reaction; because the reaction is endothermic, energy input (e.g., heat) is required. The estimated enthalpies were used with HSC Chemistry software to produce a model of PFOA defluorination in a 100 mg/L aqueous solution as a function of enthalpy. The model indicated that as enthalpy of the reaction system increased, higher PFOA defluorination, and thus a higher extent of mineralization, was achieved. The model results were validated using experimental results from the gliding arc plasmatron (GAP) treatment of PFOA or PFOS-contaminated water using argon and air, separately, as the plasma gas. It was demonstrated that PFOA and PFOS mineralization in both types of plasma required more energy than predicted by thermodynamics, which was anticipated as the model did not take kinetics into account. However, the observed trends were similar to that of the model, especially when argon was used as the plasma gas. Overall, it was demonstrated that while energy input (e.g., heat) was required for the non-equilibrium plasma degradation of PFOA in water, a lower energy barrier was present with plasma treatment compared to conventional thermal treatments, and therefore mineralization was improved. Plasma reactive species, such as hydroxyl radicals (OH) and/or hydrated electrons (e(aq)), though unable to accelerate an endothermic reaction alone, likely served as catalysts for PFOA mineralization, helping to lower the energy barrier. In this study, the activation energies (Ea) for these species to react with the alpha C–F bond in PFOA were estimated to be roughly 1 eV for hydroxyl radicals and 2 eV for hydrated electrons. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023)
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14 pages, 1471 KiB  
Article
Radiation Limit for the Energy Gain of the p–11B Reaction
by Alexei Yu. Chirkov and Kirill D. Kazakov
Plasma 2023, 6(3), 379-392; https://doi.org/10.3390/plasma6030026 - 30 Jun 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 898
Abstract
The feasibility of positive energy yield in systems with the p–11B reaction is considered here by considering refined (optimistic) data on the reaction rate. The analysis was carried out within the traditional framework for magnetic confinement systems, but without taking into [...] Read more.
The feasibility of positive energy yield in systems with the p–11B reaction is considered here by considering refined (optimistic) data on the reaction rate. The analysis was carried out within the traditional framework for magnetic confinement systems, but without taking into account a particular type of plasma configuration. The energy balance was considered both for the ions and electrons. The balance of particles includes all species as well as the products of fusion (alpha particles). Calculations have shown that accounting for the content of thermalized reaction products (alpha particles) leads to an increase in radiation losses and a decrease in gain to Q < 1. In the steady-state scenario, the energy gain Q~5–10 can be obtained in p–11B plasma, if only the fast (high-energy) population of fusion alpha particles is considered. For pulsed modes, the gain value is proportional to the content of alpha particles, and it is limited by the complete burn of one of the fuel components (boron), so it does not exceed unity. In the analysis we did not rely on any assumptions about the theoretically predicted mechanisms for increasing the cross section and the reaction rate, and only radiation losses (primarily bremsstrahlung) dramatically affect the gain Q. Thus, the regimes found can be considered as limiting in the framework of the classical concepts of processes in hot fusion plasma. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023)
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17 pages, 6617 KiB  
Article
Tailoring Black TiO2 Thin Films: Insights from Hollow Cathode Hydrogen Plasma Treatment Duration
by Armstrong Godoy-Junior, André Pereira, Barbara Damasceno, Isabela Horta, Marcilene Gomes, Douglas Leite, Walter Miyakawa, Maurício Baldan, Marcos Massi, Rodrigo Pessoa and Argemiro da Silva Sobrinho
Plasma 2023, 6(2), 362-378; https://doi.org/10.3390/plasma6020025 - 01 Jun 2023
Viewed by 1296
Abstract
In this study, we report the use of a radiofrequency plasma-assisted chemical vapor deposition (RF-CVD) system with a hollow cathode geometry to hydrogenate anatase TiO2 thin films. The goal was to create black TiO2 films with improved light absorption capabilities. The [...] Read more.
In this study, we report the use of a radiofrequency plasma-assisted chemical vapor deposition (RF-CVD) system with a hollow cathode geometry to hydrogenate anatase TiO2 thin films. The goal was to create black TiO2 films with improved light absorption capabilities. The initial TiO2 was developed through magnetron sputtering, and this study specifically investigated the impact of hollow cathode hydrogen plasma (HCHP) treatment duration on the crucial characteristics of the resulting black TiO2 films. The HCHP treatment effectively created in-bandgap states in the TiO2 structure, leading to enhanced light absorption and improved conductivity. Morphological analysis showed a 24% surface area increase after 15 min of treatment. Wettability and surface energy results displayed nonlinear behavior, highlighting the influence of morphology on hydrophilicity improvement. The anatase TiO2 phase remained consistent, as confirmed by diffractograms. Raman analysis revealed structural alterations and induced lattice defects. Treated samples exhibited outstanding photodegradation performance, removing over 45% of methylene blue dye compared to ~25% by the pristine TiO2 film. The study emphasized the significant impact of 15-min hydrogenation on the HCHP treatment. The research provided valuable insights into the role of hydrogenation time using the HCHP treatment route on anatase TiO2 thin films and demonstrated the potential of the produced black TiO2 thin films for photocatalytic applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023)
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17 pages, 1824 KiB  
Article
A Mechanism for Large-Amplitude Parallel Electrostatic Waves Observed at the Magnetopause
by Gurbax Singh Lakhina, Satyavir Singh, Thekkeyil Sreeraj, Selvaraj Devanandhan and Rajith Rubia
Plasma 2023, 6(2), 345-361; https://doi.org/10.3390/plasma6020024 - 01 Jun 2023
Viewed by 1511
Abstract
Large-amplitude electrostatic waves propagating parallel to the background magnetic field have been observed at the Earth’s magnetopause by the Magnetospheric Multiscale (MMS) spacecraft. These waves are observed in the region where there is an intermixing of magnetosheath and magnetospheric plasmas. The plasma in [...] Read more.
Large-amplitude electrostatic waves propagating parallel to the background magnetic field have been observed at the Earth’s magnetopause by the Magnetospheric Multiscale (MMS) spacecraft. These waves are observed in the region where there is an intermixing of magnetosheath and magnetospheric plasmas. The plasma in the intermixing region is modeled as a five-component plasma consisting of three types of electrons, namely, two counterstreaming hot electron beams and cold electrons, and two types of ions, namely, cold background protons and a hot proton beam. Sagdeev pseudo-potential technique is used to study the parallel propagating nonlinear electrostatic solitary structures. The model predicts four types of modes, namely, slow ion-acoustic mode, fast ion-acoustic mode, slow electron-acoustic mode and fast electron-acoustic modes. Except the fast ion-acoustic mode, all other modes support solitons. Whereas slow ion-acoustic solitons have positive potentials, both slow and fast electron-acoustic solitons have negative potentials. For the case of 4% cold electron density, the slow ion-acoustic solitons have electric field ∼(40–120) mV m1. The fast Fourier transforms (FFT) of slow ion-acoustic solitons produce broadband frequency spectra having peaks between ∼100 Hz to 1000 Hz. These theoretical predictions are in good agreement with the observations. The slow and fast electron-acoustic solitons could be relevant in explaining the low-intensity high (>1 kHz) frequency waves which are also observed at the same time. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023)
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11 pages, 520 KiB  
Article
What Machine Learning Can and Cannot Do for Inertial Confinement Fusion
by Baolian Cheng and Paul A. Bradley
Plasma 2023, 6(2), 334-344; https://doi.org/10.3390/plasma6020023 - 01 Jun 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1531
Abstract
Machine learning methodologies have played remarkable roles in solving complex systems with large data, well-defined input–output pairs, and clearly definable goals and metrics. The methodologies are effective in image analysis, classification, and systems without long chains of logic. Recently, machine-learning methodologies have been [...] Read more.
Machine learning methodologies have played remarkable roles in solving complex systems with large data, well-defined input–output pairs, and clearly definable goals and metrics. The methodologies are effective in image analysis, classification, and systems without long chains of logic. Recently, machine-learning methodologies have been widely applied to inertial confinement fusion (ICF) capsules and the design optimization of OMEGA (Omega Laser Facility) capsule implosion and NIF (National Ignition Facility) ignition capsules, leading to significant progress. As machine learning is being increasingly applied, concerns arise regarding its capabilities and limitations in the context of ICF. ICF is a complicated physical system that relies on physics knowledge and human judgment to guide machine learning. Additionally, the experimental database for ICF ignition is not large enough to provide credible training data. Most researchers in the field of ICF use simulations, or a mix of simulations and experimental results, instead of real data to train machine learning models and related tools. They then use the trained learning model to predict future events. This methodology can be successful, subject to a careful choice of data and simulations. However, because of the extreme sensitivity of the neutron yield to the input implosion parameters, physics-guided machine learning for ICF is extremely important and necessary, especially when the database is small, the uncertain-domain knowledge is large, and the physical capabilities of the learning models are still being developed. In this work, we identify problems in ICF that are suitable for machine learning and circumstances where machine learning is less likely to be successful. This study investigates the applications of machine learning and highlights fundamental research challenges and directions associated with machine learning in ICF. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023)
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14 pages, 12225 KiB  
Article
EUV/VUV Spectroscopy for the Study of Carbon Impurity Transport in Hydrogen and Deuterium Plasmas in the Edge Stochastic Magnetic Field Layer of Large Helical Device
by Tetsutarou Oishi, Shigeru Morita, Masahiro Kobayashi, Gakushi Kawamura, Yasuko Kawamoto, Tomoko Kawate, Suguru Masuzaki, Chihiro Suzuki and Motoshi Goto
Plasma 2023, 6(2), 308-321; https://doi.org/10.3390/plasma6020021 - 12 May 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1171
Abstract
The ergodic layer in the Large Helical Device (LHD) consists of stochastic magnetic fields exhibiting a three-dimensional structure that is intrinsically formed by helical coils. Spectroscopic diagnostics was employed in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) and vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) wavelength ranges to investigate emission [...] Read more.
The ergodic layer in the Large Helical Device (LHD) consists of stochastic magnetic fields exhibiting a three-dimensional structure that is intrinsically formed by helical coils. Spectroscopic diagnostics was employed in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) and vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) wavelength ranges to investigate emission lines of carbon impurities in both hydrogen (H) and deuterium (D) plasmas, aiming to elucidate the impact of distinct bulk ions on impurity generation and transport in the edge plasmas of the LHD. The emission intensity of carbon CIII, CIV, CV, and CVI lines is significantly higher in the D plasma compared to the H plasma, indicating a greater sputtering rate of carbon materials in the D plasma, resulting in a higher quantity of carbon impurities originating from the divertor plates. A Doppler profile measurement of the second order of CIV line emission (1548.20 × 2 Å) was attempted using a 3 m normal-incidence VUV spectrometer in the edge plasma at a horizontally elongated plasma position. The flow velocity reaches its maximum value close to the outermost region of the ergodic layer, and the observed flow direction aligns with the friction force in the parallel momentum balance. The flow velocity increases with the electron density in H plasmas, suggesting that the friction force becomes more dominant in the force balance at higher density regimes. This leads to an increase in the impurity flow, which can contribute to the impurity screening. In contrast, the flow velocity in the D plasma is smaller than that in the H plasma. The difference in flow values between D and H plasmas, when the friction force term dominates in the momentum balance, could be attributed to the mass dependence of the thermal velocity of the bulk ions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023)
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27 pages, 6355 KiB  
Article
From Repeatability to Self-Organization of Guided Streamers Propagating in a Jet of Cold Plasma
by Henri Decauchy and Thierry Dufour
Plasma 2023, 6(2), 250-276; https://doi.org/10.3390/plasma6020019 - 05 May 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1856
Abstract
In this work, a jet of cold plasma is generated in a device supplied in helium and powered with a high-voltage nanopulse power supply, hence generating guided streamers. We focus on the interaction between these guided streamers and two targets placed in a [...] Read more.
In this work, a jet of cold plasma is generated in a device supplied in helium and powered with a high-voltage nanopulse power supply, hence generating guided streamers. We focus on the interaction between these guided streamers and two targets placed in a series: a metal mesh target (MM) at floating potential followed by a metal plate target (MP) grounded by a 1500 Ω resistor. We demonstrate that such an experimental setup allows to shift from a physics of streamer repeatability to a physics of streamer self-organization, i.e., from the repetition of guided streamers that exhibit fixed spatiotemporal constants to the emergence of self-organized guided streamers, each of which is generated on the rising edge of a high-voltage pulse. Up to five positive guided streamers can be self-organized one after the other, all distinct in space and time. While self-organization occurs in the capillary and up to the MM target, we also demonstrate the existence of transient emissive phenomena in the inter-target region, especially a filamentary discharge whose generation is directly correlated with complexity order Ω. The mechanisms of the self-organized guided streamers are deciphered by correlating their optical and electrical properties measured by fast ICCD camera and current-voltage probes, respectively. For the sake of clarity, special attention is paid to the case where three self-organized guided streamers (α, β and γ) propagate at vα = 75.7 km·s–1, vβ = 66.5 km·s–1 and vγ = 58.2 km·s–1), before being accelerated in the vicinity of the MM target. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023)
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13 pages, 23963 KiB  
Article
Characteristics of Double-Layer, Large-Flow Dielectric Barrier Discharge Plasma Source for Toluene Decomposition
by Mao Xu, Yohei Fukuyama, Kazuki Nakai, Zhizhi Liu, Yuki Sumiya and Akitoshi Okino
Plasma 2023, 6(2), 212-224; https://doi.org/10.3390/plasma6020016 - 03 Apr 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1900
Abstract
The direct decomposition of toluene-containing humidified air at large flow rates was studied in two types of reactors with dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) features in ambient conditions. A scalable large-flow DBD reactor (single-layer reactor) was designed to verify the feasibility of large-flow plasma [...] Read more.
The direct decomposition of toluene-containing humidified air at large flow rates was studied in two types of reactors with dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) features in ambient conditions. A scalable large-flow DBD reactor (single-layer reactor) was designed to verify the feasibility of large-flow plasma generation and evaluate its decomposition characteristics with toluene-containing humidified air, which have not been investigated. In addition, another large-flow DBD reactor with a multilayer structure (two-layer reactor) was developed as an upscale version of the single-layer reactor, and the scalability and superiority of the features of the multilayer structure were validated by comparing the decomposition characteristics of the two reactors. Consequently, the large-flow DBD reactor showed similar decomposition characteristics to those of the small-flow DBD reactor regarding applied voltage, flow velocity, flow rate, and discharge length, thus justifying the feasibility of large-flow plasma generation. Additionally, the two-layer reactor is more effective than the single-layer reactor, suggesting multilayer configuration is a viable scheme for further upscaled DBD systems. A high decomposition rate of 59.5% was achieved at the considerably large flow rate of 110 L/min. The results provide fundamental data and present guidelines for the implementation of the DBD plasma-based system as a solution for volatile organic compound abatement. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023)
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Review

Jump to: Research

11 pages, 4955 KiB  
Review
Physical Processes That Occur in Self-Organized Tokamak Plasma
by Ksenia A. Razumova and Sergey E. Lysenko
Plasma 2023, 6(3), 408-418; https://doi.org/10.3390/plasma6030028 - 12 Jul 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 918
Abstract
Processes associated with plasma self-organization in tokamaks are presented in the possible logical sequence. The resulting picture of physical processes in self-organized plasmas is predicted based on the nonrequiibrium thermodynamic approach, which uses the Smoluchowski-type equation for the energy balance. The self-organization of [...] Read more.
Processes associated with plasma self-organization in tokamaks are presented in the possible logical sequence. The resulting picture of physical processes in self-organized plasmas is predicted based on the nonrequiibrium thermodynamic approach, which uses the Smoluchowski-type equation for the energy balance. The self-organization of magnetized plasma leads to the formation of the universal MHD structure, where the normalized pressure profiles are similar. Finally, experimental confirmation of the proposed physical picture in magnetic fusion facilities is given. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Plasma Sciences 2023)
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