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Focus on Antibiotics – New Challenges and Steps Forward in Discovery and Development, 2nd Edition

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A special issue of Pharmaceutics (ISSN 1999-4923). This special issue belongs to the section "Drug Targeting and Design".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 July 2024 | Viewed by 17060

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Prof. Dr. Aura Rusu

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Pharmaceutical and Therapeutical Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology of Târgu Mureș, 38 Gheorghe Marinescu Street, 540142 Targu Mureș, Romania
Interests: pharmaceutical chemistry; medicinal chemistry; drug design; antibacterial agents; metal complexes; drug analysis; capillary electrophoresis; patient–pharmacist communication
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Prof. Dr. Valentina Uivarosi

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General and Inorganic Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 6 Traian Vuia Street, Sector 2, 020956 Bucharest, Romania
Interests: design of new metal complexes with biological activity (e.g., antibacterial, anticancer, and antidiabetic activity); synthesis; characterization; DNA binding and protein interaction studies; cytotoxicity studies; drug repositioning
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The design of new antibiotics is still considered the primary weapon in the fight against the growing bacterial resistance to known antibiotics. Pharmaceutical research is focused on new approaches that lead to new successful compounds more quickly. Continuous discoveries about the structure–activity relationship in the different antibiotic classes and advances in computer-aided drug design (CADD) methods will contribute to the coming new generations of antibiotics. A new trend targets old antibiotics and other compounds from various therapeutic classes for optimization and repositioning. Additionally, hybrid drugs incorporating two active compounds into a single molecule could expand antibacterial activity and prevent bacterial resistance. Different metal complexes in antibiotics and other organic substances have already shown their potential for antibacterial activity. Nanoparticles (e.g., silver nanoparticles) are very attractive for use in multiple medical applications. Thus, in the last decade, there has been the desire to find new classes of antibiotics. New compounds with antibacterial activity are in various research stages: proteic compounds, siderophores, quinoxolidinones, natural antibiotics, antibiotic resistance breakers, and others. The second volume of this Special Issue volume II aims to highlight the recent steps toward discovering new antibiotics.

Prof. Dr. Aura Rusu
Prof. Dr. Valentina Uivarosi
Guest Editors

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Keywords

antibiotics
hybrid antibiotics
metal complexes
nanoparticles
silver nanoparticles
natural antibiotics
bioactive compounds
drug repurposing
drug repositioning
antibiotic resistance breakers
antibacterial drug resistance
antibiotic resistance

Related Special Issue

Focus on Antibiotics – New Challenges and Steps Forward in Discovery and Development in Pharmaceutics (11 articles)

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Research

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12 pages, 2813 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Levofloxacin and Ciprofloxacin Co-Crystals with Flavonoids: Solid-State Investigation for a Multitarget Strategy against Helicobacter pylori

by Cecilia Fiore, Federico Antoniciello, Davide Roncarati, Vincenzo Scarlato, Fabrizia Grepioni and Dario Braga

Pharmaceutics 2024, 16(2), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics16020203 - 30 Jan 2024

Viewed by 744

Abstract

In this paper, we address the problem of antimicrobial resistance in the case of Helicobacter pylori with a crystal engineering approach. Two antibiotics of the fluoroquinolone class, namely, levofloxacin (LEV) and ciprofloxacin (CIP), have been co-crystallized with the flavonoids quercetin (QUE), myricetin (MYR), and hesperetin (HES), resulting in the formation of four co-crystals, namely, LEV∙QUE, LEV∙MYR, LEV₂∙HES, and CIP∙QUE. The co-crystals were obtained from solution, slurry, or mechanochemical mixing of the reactants. LEV∙QUE and LEV∙MYR were initially obtained as the ethanol solvates LEV∙QUE∙xEtOH and LEV∙MYR∙xEtOH, respectively, which upon thermal treatment yielded the unsolvated forms. All co-crystals were characterized by powder X-ray diffraction and thermal gravimetric analysis. The antibacterial performance of the four co-crystals LEV∙QUE, LEV∙MYR, LEV₂∙HES, and CIP∙QUE in comparison with that of the physical mixtures of the separate components was tested via evaluation of the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC). The results obtained indicate that the association with the co-formers, whether co-crystallized or forming a physical mixture with the active pharmaceutical ingredients (API), enhances the antimicrobial activity of the fluoroquinolones, allowing them to significantly reduce the amount of API otherwise required to display the same activity against H. pylori. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Antibiotics – New Challenges and Steps Forward in Discovery and Development, 2nd Edition)

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22 pages, 5601 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of the Antimicrobial Activities of Trichoplusia ni Cecropin A as a High-Potency Therapeutic against Colistin-Resistant Escherichia coli

by Hyeju Lee, Byeongkwon Kim, Minju Kim, Seoyeong Yoo, Jinkyeong Lee, Eunha Hwang and Yangmee Kim

Pharmaceutics 2023, 15(6), 1752; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15061752 - 16 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1141

Abstract

The spread of colistin-resistant bacteria is a serious threat to public health. As an alternative to traditional antibiotics, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) show promise against multidrug resistance. In this study, we investigated the activity of the insect AMP Tricoplusia ni cecropin A (T. ni cecropin) against colistin-resistant bacteria. T. ni cecropin exhibited significant antibacterial and antibiofilm activities against colistin-resistant Escherichia coli (ColREC) with low cytotoxicity against mammalian cells in vitro. Results of permeabilization of the ColREC outer membrane as monitored through 1-N-phenylnaphthylamine uptake, scanning electron microscopy, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) neutralization, and LPS-binding interaction revealed that T. ni cecropin manifested antibacterial activity by targeting the outer membrane of E. coli with strong interaction with LPS. T. ni cecropin specifically targeted toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and showed anti-inflammatory activities with a significant reduction of inflammatory cytokines in macrophages stimulated with either LPS or ColREC via blockade of TLR4-mediated inflammatory signaling. Moreover, T. ni cecropin exhibited anti-septic effects in an LPS-induced endotoxemia mouse model, confirming its LPS-neutralizing activity, immunosuppressive effect, and recovery of organ damage in vivo. These findings demonstrate that T. ni cecropin exerts strong antimicrobial activities against ColREC and could serve as a foundation for the development of AMP therapeutics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Antibiotics – New Challenges and Steps Forward in Discovery and Development, 2nd Edition)

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33 pages, 8718 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis, Characterization, and Docking Study of Novel Thioureidophosphonate-Incorporated Silver Nanocomposites as Potent Antibacterial Agents

by Ahmed I. El-Tantawy, Elshaymaa I. Elmongy, Shimaa M. Elsaeed, Abdel Aleem H. Abdel Aleem, Reem Binsuwaidan, Wael H. Eisa, Ayah Usama Salman, Noura Elsayed Elharony and Nour F. Attia

Pharmaceutics 2023, 15(6), 1666; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15061666 - 06 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2052

Abstract

Newly synthesized mono- and bis-thioureidophosphonate (MTP and BTP) analogues in eco-friendly conditions were employed as reducing/capping cores for 100, 500, and 1000 mg L⁻¹ of silver nitrate. The physicochemical properties of silver nanocomposites (MTP(BTP)/Ag NCs) were fully elucidated using spectroscopic and microscopic tools. The antibacterial activity of the nanocomposites was screened against six multidrug-resistant pathogenic strains, comparable to ampicillin and ciprofloxacin commercial drugs. The antibacterial performance of BTP was more substantial than MTP, notably with the best minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 0.0781 mg/mL towards Bacillus subtilis, Salmonella typhi, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Among all, BTP provided the clearest zone of inhibition (ZOI) of 35 ± 1.00 mm against Salmonella typhi. After the dispersion of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), MTP/Ag NCs offered dose-dependently distinct advantages over the same nanoparticle with BTP; a more noteworthy decline by 4098 × MIC to 0.1525 × 10⁻³ mg/mL was recorded for MTP/Ag-1000 against Pseudomonas aeruginosa over BTP/Ag-1000. Towards methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), the as-prepared MTP(BTP)/Ag-1000 displayed superior bactericidal ability in 8 h. Because of the anionic surface of MTP(BTP)/Ag-1000, they could effectively resist MRSA (ATCC-43300) attachment, achieving higher antifouling rates of 42.2 and 34.4% at most optimum dose (5 mg/mL), respectively. The tunable surface work function between MTP and AgNPs promoted the antibiofilm activity of MTP/Ag-1000 by 1.7 fold over BTP/Ag-1000. Lastly, the molecular docking studies affirmed the eminent binding affinity of BTP over MTP—besides the improved binding energy of MTP/Ag NC by 37.8%—towards B. subtilis-2FQT protein. Overall, this study indicates the immense potential of TP/Ag NCs as promising nanoscale antibacterial candidates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Antibiotics – New Challenges and Steps Forward in Discovery and Development, 2nd Edition)

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22 pages, 2870 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Synthesis of 6″-Modified Kanamycin A Derivatives and Evaluation of Their Antibacterial Properties

by Kseniya Shapovalova, Georgy Zatonsky, Natalia Grammatikova, Ilya Osterman, Elizaveta Razumova, Andrey Shchekotikhin and Anna Tevyashova

Pharmaceutics 2023, 15(4), 1177; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15041177 - 07 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1457

Abstract

Aminoglycosides are one of the first classes of antibiotics to have been used clinically, and they are still being used today. They have a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity, making them effective against many different types of bacteria. Despite their long history of use, aminoglycosides are still considered promising scaffolds for the development of new antibacterial agents, particularly as bacteria continue to develop resistances to existing antibiotics. We have synthesized a series of 6″-deoxykanamycin A analogues with additional protonatable groups (amino-, guanidino or pyridinium) and tested their biological activities. For the first time we have demonstrated the ability of the tetra-N-protected-6″-O-(2,4,6-triisopropylbenzenesulfonyl)kanamycin A to interact with a weak nucleophile, pyridine, resulting in the formation of the corresponding pyridinium derivative. Introducing small diamino-substituents at the 6″-position of kanamycin A did not significantly alter the antibacterial activity of the parent antibiotic, but further modification by acylation resulted in a complete loss of the antibacterial activity. However, introducing a guanidine residue led to a compound with improved activity against S. aureus. Moreover, most of the obtained 6″-modified kanamycin A derivatives were less influenced by the resistant mechanism associated with mutations of the elongation factor G than the parent kanamycin A. This suggests that modifying the 6″-position of kanamycin A with protonatable groups is a promising direction for the further development of new antibacterial agents with reduced resistances. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Antibiotics – New Challenges and Steps Forward in Discovery and Development, 2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 4440 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Dimerization, Dendrimerization, and Chirality in p-BthTX-I Peptide Analogs on the Antibacterial Activity and Enzymatic Inhibition of the SARS-CoV-2 PL^pro Protein

by Natália Vitória Bitencourt, Gabriela Marinho Righetto, Ilana Lopes Baratella Cunha Camargo, Mariana Ortiz de Godoy, Rafael Victorio Carvalho Guido, Glaucius Oliva, Norival Alves Santos-Filho and Eduardo Maffud Cilli

Pharmaceutics 2023, 15(2), 436; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15020436 - 28 Jan 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1564

Abstract

Recent studies have shown that the peptide [des-Cys¹¹,Lys¹²,Lys¹³-(p-BthTX-I)₂K] (p-Bth) is a p-BthTX-I analog that shows enhanced antimicrobial activity, stability and hemolytic activity, and is easy to obtain compared to the wild-type sequence. This molecule also inhibits SARS-CoV-2 viral infection in Vero cells, acting on SARS-CoV-2 PL^pro enzymatic activity. Thus, the present study aimed to assess the effects of structural modifications to p-Bth, such as dimerization, dendrimerization and chirality, on the antibacterial activity and inhibitory properties of PL^pro. The results showed that the dimerization or dendrimerization of p-Bth was essential for antibacterial activity, as the monomeric structure led to a total loss of, or significant reduction in, bacterial activities. The dimers and tetramers obtained using branched lysine proved to be prominent compounds with antibacterial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. In addition, hemolysis rates were below 10% at the corresponding concentrations. Conversely, the inhibitory activity of the PL^pro of SARS-CoV-2 was similar in the monomeric, dimeric and tetrameric forms of p-Bth. Our findings indicate the importance of the dimerization and dendrimerization of this important class of antimicrobial peptides, which shows great potential for antimicrobial and antiviral drug-discovery campaigns. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Antibiotics – New Challenges and Steps Forward in Discovery and Development, 2nd Edition)

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25 pages, 5050 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bacteriocin-Nanoconjugates (Bac10307-AgNPs) Biosynthesized from Lactobacillus acidophilus-Derived Bacteriocins Exhibit Enhanced and Promising Biological Activities

by Arif Jamal Siddiqui, Mitesh Patel, Mohd Adnan, Sadaf Jahan, Juhi Saxena, Mohammed Merae Alshahrani, Abdelmushin Abdelgadir, Fevzi Bardakci, Manojkumar Sachidanandan, Riadh Badraoui, Mejdi Snoussi and Allal Ouhtit

Pharmaceutics 2023, 15(2), 403; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15020403 - 25 Jan 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1697

Abstract

The proteinaceous compounds produced by lactic acid bacteria are called bacteriocins and have a wide variety of bioactive properties. However, bacteriocin’s commercial availability is limited due to short stability periods and low yields. Therefore, the objective of this study was to synthesize bacteriocin-derived silver nanoparticles (Bac10307-AgNPs) extracted from Lactobacillus acidophilus (L. acidophilus), which may have the potential to increase the bioactivity of bacteriocins and overcome the hurdles. It was found that extracted and purified Bac10307 had a broad range of stability for both temperature (20–100 °C) and pH (3–12). Further, based on Sodium dodecyl-sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS–PAGE) analysis, its molecular weight was estimated to be 4.2 kDa. The synthesized Bac10307-AgNPs showed a peak of surface plasmon resonance at 430 nm λmax. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) confirmed the presence of biological moieties, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) coupled with Energy dispersive X-Ray (EDX) confirmed that AgNPs were spherical and irregularly shaped, with a size range of 9–20 nm. As a result, the Bac10307-AgNPs displayed very strong antibacterial activity with MIC values as low as 8 μg/mL for Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa), when compared to Bac10307 alone. In addition, Bac10307-AgNPs demonstrated promising in vitro antioxidant activity against 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) (IC₅₀ = 116.04 μg/mL) and in vitro cytotoxicity against human liver cancer cells (HepG2) (IC₅₀ = 135.63 μg/mL), more than Bac10307 alone (IC₅₀ = 139.82 μg/mL against DPPH and 158.20 μg/mL against HepG2). Furthermore, a protein–protein molecular docking simulation study of bacteriocins with target proteins of different biological functions was also carried out in order to ascertain the interactions between bacteriocins and target proteins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Antibiotics – New Challenges and Steps Forward in Discovery and Development, 2nd Edition)

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Review

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22 pages, 4043 KiB

Open AccessReview

Bioactive ZnO Nanoparticles: Biosynthesis, Characterization and Potential Antimicrobial Applications

by Md. Amdadul Huq, Md. Aminul Islam Apu, Md. Ashrafudoulla, Md. Mizanur Rahman, Md. Anowar Khasru Parvez, Sri Renukadevi Balusamy, Shahina Akter and Md. Shahedur Rahman

Pharmaceutics 2023, 15(11), 2634; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15112634 - 16 Nov 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1751

Abstract

In recent years, biosynthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnONPs) have gained tremendous attention because of their safe and non-toxic nature and distinctive biomedical applications. A diverse range of microbes (bacteria, fungi and yeast) and various parts (leaf, root, fruit, flower, peel, stem, etc.) of plants have been exploited for the facile, rapid, cost-effective and non-toxic synthesis of ZnONPs. Plant extracts, microbial biomass or culture supernatant contain various biomolecules including enzymes, amino acids, proteins, vitamins, alkaloids, flavonoids, etc., which serve as reducing, capping and stabilizing agents during the biosynthesis of ZnONPs. The biosynthesized ZnONPs are generally characterized using UV-VIS spectroscopy, TEM, SEM, EDX, XRD, FTIR, etc. Antibiotic resistance is a serious problem for global public health. Due to mutation, shifting environmental circumstances and excessive drug use, the number of multidrug-resistant pathogenic microbes is continuously rising. To solve this issue, novel, safe and effective antimicrobial agents are needed urgently. Biosynthesized ZnONPs could be novel and effective antimicrobial agents because of their safe and non-toxic nature and powerful antimicrobial characteristics. It is proven that biosynthesized ZnONPs have strong antimicrobial activity against various pathogenic microorganisms including multidrug-resistant bacteria. The possible antimicrobial mechanisms of ZnONPs are the generation of reactive oxygen species, physical interactions, disruption of the cell walls and cell membranes, damage to DNA, enzyme inactivation, protein denaturation, ribosomal destabilization and mitochondrial dysfunction. In this review, the biosynthesis of ZnONPs using microbes and plants and their characterization have been reviewed comprehensively. Also, the antimicrobial applications and mechanisms of biosynthesized ZnONPs against various pathogenic microorganisms have been highlighted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Antibiotics – New Challenges and Steps Forward in Discovery and Development, 2nd Edition)

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51 pages, 22447 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Role of Five-Membered Heterocycles in the Molecular Structure of Antibacterial Drugs Used in Therapy

by Aura Rusu, Ioana-Maria Moga, Livia Uncu and Gabriel Hancu

Pharmaceutics 2023, 15(11), 2554; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15112554 - 29 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1824

Abstract

Five-membered heterocycles are essential structural components in various antibacterial drugs; the physicochemical properties of a five-membered heterocycle can play a crucial role in determining the biological activity of an antibacterial drug. These properties can affect the drug’s activity spectrum, potency, and pharmacokinetic and toxicological properties. Using scientific databases, we identified and discussed the antibacterials used in therapy, containing five-membered heterocycles in their molecular structure. The identified five-membered heterocycles used in antibacterial design contain one to four heteroatoms (nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur). Antibacterials containing five-membered heterocycles were discussed, highlighting the biological properties imprinted by the targeted heterocycle. In some antibacterials, heterocycles with five atoms are pharmacophores responsible for their specific antibacterial activity. As pharmacophores, these heterocycles help design new medicinal molecules, improving their potency and selectivity and comprehending the structure-activity relationship of antibiotics. Unfortunately, particular heterocycles can also affect the drug’s potential toxicity. The review extensively presents the most successful five-atom heterocycles used to design antibacterial essential medicines. Understanding and optimizing the intrinsic characteristics of a five-membered heterocycle can help the development of antibacterial drugs with improved activity, pharmacokinetic profile, and safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Antibiotics – New Challenges and Steps Forward in Discovery and Development, 2nd Edition)

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46 pages, 6994 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Synthetic Pathways to Non-Psychotropic Phytocannabinoids as Promising Molecules to Develop Novel Antibiotics: A Review

by Silvana Alfei, Gian Carlo Schito and Anna Maria Schito

Pharmaceutics 2023, 15(7), 1889; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15071889 - 05 Jul 2023

Viewed by 1780

Abstract

Due to the rapid emergence of multi drug resistant (MDR) pathogens against which current antibiotics are no longer functioning, severe infections are becoming practically untreatable. Consequently, the discovery of new classes of effective antimicrobial agents with novel mechanism of action is becoming increasingly urgent. The bioactivity of Cannabis sativa, an herbaceous plant used for millennia for medicinal and recreational purposes, is mainly due to its content in phytocannabinoids (PCs). Among the 180 PCs detected, cannabidiol (CBD), Δ⁸ and Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinols (Δ⁸-THC and Δ⁹-THC), cannabichromene (CBC), cannabigerol (CBG), cannabinol (CBN) and some of their acidic precursors have demonstrated from moderate to potent antibacterial effects against Gram-positive bacteria (MICs 0.5–8 µg/mL), including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), epidemic MRSA (EMRSA), as well as fluoroquinolone and tetracycline-resistant strains. Particularly, the non-psychotropic CBG was also capable to inhibit MRSA biofilm formation, to eradicate even mature biofilms, and to rapidly eliminate MRSA persiter cells. In this scenario, CBG, as well as other minor non-psychotropic PCs, such as CBD, and CBC could represent promising compounds for developing novel antibiotics with high therapeutic potential. Anyway, further studies are necessary, needing abundant quantities of such PCs, scarcely provided naturally by Cannabis plants. Here, after an extensive overture on cannabinoids including their reported antimicrobial effects, aiming at easing the synthetic production of the necessary amounts of CBG, CBC and CBD for further studies, we have, for the first time, systematically reviewed the synthetic pathways utilized for their synthesis, reporting both reaction schemes and experimental details. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Antibiotics – New Challenges and Steps Forward in Discovery and Development, 2nd Edition)

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20 pages, 1810 KiB

Open AccessReview

Antibiotic-Loaded Gold Nanoparticles: A Nano-Arsenal against ESBL Producer-Resistant Pathogens

by Syed Mohd Danish Rizvi, Amr Selim Abu Lila, Afrasim Moin, Talib Hussain, Mohammad Amjad Kamal, Hana Sonbol and El-Sayed Khafagy

Pharmaceutics 2023, 15(2), 430; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15020430 - 28 Jan 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1951

Abstract

The advent of new antibiotics has helped clinicians to control severe bacterial infections. Despite this, inappropriate and redundant use of antibiotics, inadequate diagnosis, and smart resistant mechanisms developed by pathogens sometimes lead to the failure of treatment strategies. The genotypic analysis of clinical samples revealed that the rapid spread of extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs) genes is one of the most common approaches acquired by bacterial pathogens to become resistant. The scenario compelled the researchers to prioritize the design and development of novel and effective therapeutic options. Nanotechnology has emerged as a plausible groundbreaking tool against resistant infectious pathogens. Numerous reports suggested that inorganic nanomaterials, specifically gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), have converted unresponsive antibiotics into potent ones against multi-drug resistant pathogenic strains. Interestingly, after almost two decades of exhaustive preclinical evaluations, AuNPs are gradually progressively moving ahead toward clinical evaluations. However, the mechanistic aspects of the antibacterial action of AuNPs remain an unsolved puzzle for the scientific fraternity. Thus, the review covers state-of-the-art investigations pertaining to the efficacy of AuNPs as a tool to overcome ESBLs acquired resistance, their applicability and toxicity perspectives, and the revelation of the most appropriate proposed mechanism of action. Conclusively, the trend suggested that antibiotic-loaded AuNPs could be developed into a promising interventional strategy to limit and overcome the concerns of antibiotic-resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Antibiotics – New Challenges and Steps Forward in Discovery and Development, 2nd Edition)

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