Editorial

3 pages, 193 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Immune Response of the Host and Vaccine Development

by Ewa Długosz and Agnieszka Wesołowska

Pathogens 2023, 12(5), 637; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12050637 - 24 Apr 2023

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Vaccines are one of the greatest achievements of modern medicine, offering an effective way to fight and control infectious diseases [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response of the Host and Vaccine Development)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

18 pages, 2806 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Four Adjuvant Combinations, IVAX-1, IVAX-2, CpG-1826+Montanide ISA 720 VG and CpG-1018+Montanide ISA 720 VG, for Safety and for Their Ability to Elicit Protective Immune Responses in Mice against a Respiratory Challenge with Chlamydia muridarum

by Sukumar Pal, Anatoli Slepenkin, Jiin Felgner, D. Huw Davies, Philip Felgner and Luis M. de la Maza

Pathogens 2023, 12(7), 863; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12070863 - 22 Jun 2023

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Abstract

There is an urgent need to produce a vaccine for Chlamydia trachomatis infections. Here, using the Chlamydia muridarum major outer membrane protein (MOMP) as an antigen, four adjuvant combinations IVAX-1 (MPLA+CpG-1018+AddaVax), IVAX-2 (MPLA+CpG-1018+AS03), CpG-1826+Montanide ISA 720 VG (CpG-1826+Mont) and CpG-1018+Montanide ISA 720 VG [...] Read more.

There is an urgent need to produce a vaccine for Chlamydia trachomatis infections. Here, using the Chlamydia muridarum major outer membrane protein (MOMP) as an antigen, four adjuvant combinations IVAX-1 (MPLA+CpG-1018+AddaVax), IVAX-2 (MPLA+CpG-1018+AS03), CpG-1826+Montanide ISA 720 VG (CpG-1826+Mont) and CpG-1018+Montanide ISA 720 VG (CpG-1018+Mont), were tested for their local reactogenicity and ability to elicit protection in BALB/c mice against a respiratory challenge with C. muridarum. Immunization with IVAX-1 or IVAX-2 induced no significant local reactogenicity following intramuscular immunization. In contrast, vaccines containing Montanide resulted in the formation of a local granuloma. Based on the IgG2a/IgG1 ratio in serum, the four adjuvant combinations elicited Th1-biased responses. IVAX-1 induced the highest in vitro neutralization titers while CpG-1018+Mont stimulated the lowest. As determined by the levels of IFN-γ produced by T-cells, the most robust cellular immune responses were elicited in mice immunized with CpG-1018+Mont, while the weakest responses were mounted by mice receiving IVAX-1. Following the respiratory challenge, mice immunized with CpG-1018+Mont lost the least amount of body weight and had the lowest number of C. muridarum inclusion-forming units (IFUs) in the lungs, while those receiving IVAX-2 had lost the most weight and had the highest number of IFUs in their lungs. Animals vaccinated with CpG-1826+Mont had the lightest lungs while those immunized using IVAX-2 had the heaviest. To conclude, due to their safety and adjuvanticity, IVAX formulations should be considered for inclusion in human vaccines against Chlamydia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response of the Host and Vaccine Development)

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16 pages, 1228 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Immunoproteomic Analysis of Trichinella britovi Proteins Recognized by IgG Antibodies from Meat Juice of Carnivores Naturally Infected with T. britovi

by Aleksandra Cybulska

Pathogens 2022, 11(10), 1155; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11101155 - 06 Oct 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1633

Abstract

Infection with Trichinella nematodes elicits non-specific and specific immune responses; these depend on the dose of infection, the nematode, and the host species. Few studies have examined the presence of specific antibodies against Trichinella spp. in the meat juice of wild animals. The [...] Read more.

Infection with Trichinella nematodes elicits non-specific and specific immune responses; these depend on the dose of infection, the nematode, and the host species. Few studies have examined the presence of specific antibodies against Trichinella spp. in the meat juice of wild animals. The aims of the study were to determine the prevalence of antibodies against Trichinella spp. in meat juice and to identify the specific proteins reacting with the meat juice from free-living carnivores naturally infected with the parasite. Meat juice samples were taken from foxes, badgers, raccoon dogs, and martens and tested with indirect ELISA. Antibodies against Trichinella spp. were detected in 10% of foxes and 46% of raccoon dogs. The ELISA results were confirmed by immunoblot, which revealed different protein patterns in meat juice from red foxes, raccoon dogs, and badgers. The most frequently observed bands were sent for further analysis by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for the detection of Trichinella britovi immunogenic proteins. The results confirm the presence of proteins such as serine protease and heat shock proteins associated with Trichinella infection. These findings provide that meat juice is a useful matrix for proteomic analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response of the Host and Vaccine Development)

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11 pages, 438 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Cardiac Safety of mRNA-Based Vaccines in Patients with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus and Lupus-like Disorders with a History of Myocarditis

by Giuseppe A. Ramirez, Veronica Batani, Luca Moroni, Giacomo De Luca, Giuseppe Pizzetti, Simone Sala, Giovanni Peretto, Corrado Campochiaro, Emanuel Della-Torre, Enrica P. Bozzolo and Lorenzo Dagna

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1001; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091001 - 01 Sep 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2071

Abstract

Anti-severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) vaccines may trigger immune-mediated adverse events, including myocarditis. Evidence of vaccine safety in patients with rheumatic disorders and underlying autoimmune myocarditis is scarce. To address this issue, we studied 13 patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) [...] Read more.

Anti-severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) vaccines may trigger immune-mediated adverse events, including myocarditis. Evidence of vaccine safety in patients with rheumatic disorders and underlying autoimmune myocarditis is scarce. To address this issue, we studied 13 patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and allied conditions with a history of myocarditis and receiving mRNA-based vaccines. Data about general and cardiac laboratory tests, treatment, and disease status were collected during routine consultations before and after the primary vaccination course and after each vaccine dose administration, while myocarditis symptoms were closely monitored. A significant increase in troponin levels from baseline was found after 13 (6–20) days from the first (p = 0.046) and 17 (4–29) days after the second dose (p = 0.013). Troponin levels progressively decreased within 3 (1–6) months in the absence of typical symptoms or signs of myocarditis. A significant increase in the constitutional domain of the British Isles Lupus Assessment Group (BILAG) index (p = 0.046) was observed in SLE patients. However, no patient needed any treatment change. mRNA-based anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccines can apparently be safely administered to patients with SLE and lupus-like disorders with previous myocarditis despite potential subclinical and transient rises in cardiac damage markers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response of the Host and Vaccine Development)

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18 pages, 5310 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Durability of Vaccine Efficacy against Ocular HSV-1 Infection Using ICP0 Mutants 0∆NLS and 0∆RING Is Lost over Time

by Daniel J. J. Carr, Amanda Berube and Edward Gershburg

Pathogens 2021, 10(11), 1470; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10111470 - 12 Nov 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1674

Abstract

Vaccines to viral pathogens in experimental animal models are often deemed successful if immunization enhances resistance of the host to virus challenge as measured by cumulative survival, reduction in virus replication and spread and/or lessen or eliminate overt tissue pathology. Furthermore, the duration [...] Read more.

Vaccines to viral pathogens in experimental animal models are often deemed successful if immunization enhances resistance of the host to virus challenge as measured by cumulative survival, reduction in virus replication and spread and/or lessen or eliminate overt tissue pathology. Furthermore, the duration of the protective response against challenge is another important consideration that drives a vaccination regimen. In the current study, we assessed the durability of two related vaccines, 0∆NLS and 0∆RING, against ocular herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) challenge in mice thirty days (short-term) and one year (long-term) following the vaccine boost. The short-term vaccine efficacy study found the 0∆RING vaccine to be nearly equivalent to the 0∆NLS vaccine in comparison to vehicle-vaccinated mice in terms of controlling virus replication and preserving the visual axis. By comparison, the long-term assessment of the two vaccines found notable differences and less efficacy overall as noted below. Specifically, the results show that in comparison to vehicle-vaccinated mice, the 0∆NLS and 0∆RING vaccinated groups were more resistant in terms of survival and virus shedding following ocular challenge. Moreover, 0∆NLS vaccinated mice also possessed significantly less infectious virus in the peripheral and central nervous systems but not the cornea compared to mice vaccinated with vehicle or 0∆RING which had similar levels. However, all vaccinated groups showed similar levels of blood and lymphatic vessel genesis into the central cornea 30 days post infection. Likewise, corneal opacity was also similar among all groups of vaccinated mice following infection. Functionally, the blink response and visual acuity were 25–50% lower in vaccinated mice 30 days post infection compared to measurements taken prior to infection. The results demonstrate a dichotomy between resistance to infection and functional performance of the visual axis that collectively show an overall loss in vaccine efficacy long-term in comparison to short-term studies in a conventional prime-boost protocol. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response of the Host and Vaccine Development)

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Review

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29 pages, 2488 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Orthopoxvirus Zoonoses—Do We Still Remember and Are Ready to Fight?

by Małgorzata Gieryńska, Lidia Szulc-Dąbrowska, Justyna Struzik, Karolina Paulina Gregorczyk-Zboroch, Matylda Barbara Mielcarska, Felix Ngosa Toka, Ada Schollenberger and Zuzanna Biernacka

Pathogens 2023, 12(3), 363; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12030363 - 21 Feb 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2097

Abstract

The eradication of smallpox was an enormous achievement due to the global vaccination program launched by World Health Organization. The cessation of the vaccination program led to steadily declining herd immunity against smallpox, causing a health emergency of global concern. The smallpox vaccines [...] Read more.

The eradication of smallpox was an enormous achievement due to the global vaccination program launched by World Health Organization. The cessation of the vaccination program led to steadily declining herd immunity against smallpox, causing a health emergency of global concern. The smallpox vaccines induced strong, humoral, and cell-mediated immune responses, protecting for decades after immunization, not only against smallpox but also against other zoonotic orthopoxviruses that now represent a significant threat to public health. Here we review the major aspects regarding orthopoxviruses’ zoonotic infections, factors responsible for viral transmissions, as well as the emerging problem of the increased number of monkeypox cases recently reported. The development of prophylactic measures against poxvirus infections, especially the current threat caused by the monkeypox virus, requires a profound understanding of poxvirus immunobiology. The utilization of animal and cell line models has provided good insight into host antiviral defenses as well as orthopoxvirus evasion mechanisms. To survive within a host, orthopoxviruses encode a large number of proteins that subvert inflammatory and immune pathways. The circumvention of viral evasion strategies and the enhancement of major host defenses are key in designing novel, safer vaccines, and should become the targets of antiviral therapies in treating poxvirus infections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response of the Host and Vaccine Development)

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17 pages, 587 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Advances in Babesia Vaccine Development: An Overview

by Michał Jerzak, Albert Gandurski, Marta Tokaj, Weronika Stachera, Magdalena Szuba and Monika Dybicz

Pathogens 2023, 12(2), 300; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12020300 - 11 Feb 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3833

Abstract

Babesiosis is a tick-borne zoonotic disease, which is caused by various species of intracellular Babesia parasite. It is a problem not only for the livestock industry but also for global health. Significant global economic losses, in particular in cattle production, have been observed. [...] Read more.

Babesiosis is a tick-borne zoonotic disease, which is caused by various species of intracellular Babesia parasite. It is a problem not only for the livestock industry but also for global health. Significant global economic losses, in particular in cattle production, have been observed. Since the current preventive measures against babesiosis are insufficient, there is increasing pressure to develop a vaccine. In this review, we survey the achievements and recent advances in the creation of antibabesiosis vaccine. The scope of this review includes the development of a vaccine against B. microti, B. bovis, B. bigemina, B. orientalis and B. divergens. Here, we present different strategies in their progress and evaluation. Scientists worldwide are still trying to find new targets for a vaccine that would not only reduce symptoms among animals but also prevent the further spread of the disease. Molecular candidates for the production of a vaccine against various Babesia spp. are presented. Our study also describes the current prospects of vaccine evolution for successful Babesia parasites elimination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response of the Host and Vaccine Development)

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32 pages, 1237 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Pathogenesis of Anemia in Canine Babesiosis: Possible Contribution of Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines and Chemokines—A Review

by Wojciech Zygner, Olga Gójska-Zygner and Luke J. Norbury

Pathogens 2023, 12(2), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12020166 - 20 Jan 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6080

Abstract

Canine babesiosis is a tick-borne protozoan disease caused by intraerythrocytic parasites of the genus Babesia. The infection may lead to anemia in infected dogs. However, anemia is not directly caused by the pathogen. The parasite’s developmental stages only have a marginal role [...] Read more.

Canine babesiosis is a tick-borne protozoan disease caused by intraerythrocytic parasites of the genus Babesia. The infection may lead to anemia in infected dogs. However, anemia is not directly caused by the pathogen. The parasite’s developmental stages only have a marginal role in contributing to a decreased red blood cell (RBC) count. The main cause of anemia in affected dogs is the immune response to the infection. This response includes antibody production, erythrophagocytosis, oxidative damage of RBCs, complement activation, and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity. Moreover, both infected and uninfected erythrocytes are retained in the spleen and sequestered in micro-vessels. All these actions are driven by pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, especially IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-8. Additionally, imbalance between the actions of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines plays a role in patho-mechanisms leading to anemia in canine babesiosis. This article is a review of the studies on the pathogenesis of anemia in canine babesiosis and related diseases, such as bovine or murine babesiosis and human or murine malaria, and the role of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in the mechanisms leading to anemia in infected dogs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response of the Host and Vaccine Development)

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10 pages, 788 KiB

Open AccessReview

Is Vitamin D3 a Worthy Supplement Protecting against Secondary Infections in Dogs with Atopic Dermatitis?

by Dorota Chrobak-Chmiel, Anna Golke, Ewelina Kwiecień, Małgorzata J. Biegańska, Kourou Dembele, Małgorzata Dziekiewicz-Mrugasiewicz, Michał Czopowicz, Magdalena Kizerwetter-Świda and Magdalena Rzewuska

Pathogens 2023, 12(1), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12010145 - 15 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2871

Abstract

Canine atopic dermatitis (CAD) is a common, chronic, inflammatory skin disease in dogs worldwide. This disease often predisposes for secondary organisms overgrowth and skin infections with pathogens, such as Staphylococcus pseudintermedius and Malassezia pachydermatis. Unfortunately, the causes of this disease in both [...] Read more.

Canine atopic dermatitis (CAD) is a common, chronic, inflammatory skin disease in dogs worldwide. This disease often predisposes for secondary organisms overgrowth and skin infections with pathogens, such as Staphylococcus pseudintermedius and Malassezia pachydermatis. Unfortunately, the causes of this disease in both humans and animals are not fully understood; therefore, the only possible option is a lifelong, symptomatic treatment. The management of CAD is mainly based on limiting contact with allergens and antipruritic therapy, most often with glucocorticoids and antihistamines. A serious problem in this situation is the fact, that long-term administration of glucocorticoids leads to side effects like polyuria, alopecia, increased susceptibility to infection, muscle atrophy, and many others. For this reason, great emphasis is placed on the development of replacement and supportive therapies. It is a well-documented fact that reduced concentrations of serum vitamin D3 contribute to the severity of atopic dermatitis symptoms in humans. Moreover, unlike the most commonly used therapeutic methods, of which the main goal is to ameliorate inflammation and pruritus, namely the symptoms of AD, vitamin D3 supplementation affects some underlying factors of this disease. Therefore, in this review, we summarize the current state of knowledge regarding the role of vitamin D3 in CAD, its protective effect against secondary bacterial and fungal infections, and the potential of its supplementation in dogs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response of the Host and Vaccine Development)

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24 pages, 1648 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Role of Nuclear Factor Kappa B (NF-κB) in the Immune Response against Parasites

by Piotr Bąska and Luke J. Norbury

Pathogens 2022, 11(3), 310; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11030310 - 02 Mar 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4498

Abstract

The immune system consists of various cells, organs, and processes that interact in a sophisticated manner to defend against pathogens. Upon initial exposure to an invader, nonspecific mechanisms are raised through the activation of macrophages, monocytes, basophils, mast cells, eosinophils, innate lymphoid cells, [...] Read more.

The immune system consists of various cells, organs, and processes that interact in a sophisticated manner to defend against pathogens. Upon initial exposure to an invader, nonspecific mechanisms are raised through the activation of macrophages, monocytes, basophils, mast cells, eosinophils, innate lymphoid cells, or natural killer cells. During the course of an infection, more specific responses develop (adaptive immune responses) whose hallmarks include the expansion of B and T cells that specifically recognize foreign antigens. Cell to cell communication takes place through physical interactions as well as through the release of mediators (cytokines, chemokines) that modify cell activity and control and regulate the immune response. One regulator of cell states is the transcription factor Nuclear Factor kappa B (NF-κB) which mediates responses to various stimuli and is involved in a variety of processes (cell cycle, development, apoptosis, carcinogenesis, innate and adaptive immune responses). It consists of two protein classes with NF-κB1 (p105/50) and NF-κB2 (p100/52) belonging to class I, and RelA (p65), RelB and c-Rel belonging to class II. The active transcription factor consists of a dimer, usually comprised of both class I and class II proteins conjugated to Inhibitor of κB (IκB). Through various stimuli, IκB is phosphorylated and detached, allowing dimer migration to the nucleus and binding of DNA. NF-κB is crucial in regulating the immune response and maintaining a balance between suppression, effective response, and immunopathologies. Parasites are a diverse group of organisms comprised of three major groups: protozoa, helminths, and ectoparasites. Each group induces distinct effector immune mechanisms and is susceptible to different types of immune responses (Th₁, Th₂, Th₁₇). This review describes the role of NF-κB and its activity during parasite infections and its contribution to inducing protective responses or immunopathologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response of the Host and Vaccine Development)

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14 pages, 1121 KiB

Open AccessReview

Nematode Orthologs of Macrophage Migration Inhibitory Factor (MIF) as Modulators of the Host Immune Response and Potential Therapeutic Targets

by Justyna Karabowicz, Ewa Długosz, Piotr Bąska and Marcin Wiśniewski

Pathogens 2022, 11(2), 258; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11020258 - 17 Feb 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2625

Abstract

One of the adaptations of nematodes, which allows long-term survival in the host, is the production of proteins with immunomodulatory properties. The parasites secrete numerous homologs of human immune mediators, such as macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), which is a substantial regulator of [...] Read more.

One of the adaptations of nematodes, which allows long-term survival in the host, is the production of proteins with immunomodulatory properties. The parasites secrete numerous homologs of human immune mediators, such as macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), which is a substantial regulator of the inflammatory immune response. Homologs of mammalian MIF have been recognized in many species of nematode parasites, but their role has not been fully understood. The application of molecular biology and genetic engineering methods, including the production of recombinant proteins, has enabled better characterization of their structure and properties. This review provides insight into the current state of knowledge on MIF homologs produced by nematodes, as well as their structure, enzymatic activity, tissue expression pattern, impact on the host immune system, and potential use in the treatment of parasitic, inflammatory, and autoimmune diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response of the Host and Vaccine Development)

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Graphical abstract

18 pages, 834 KiB

Open AccessReview

Machine Learning Techniques for the Prediction of B-Cell and T-Cell Epitopes as Potential Vaccine Targets with a Specific Focus on SARS-CoV-2 Pathogen: A Review

by Syed Nisar Hussain Bukhari, Amit Jain, Ehtishamul Haq, Abolfazl Mehbodniya and Julian Webber

Pathogens 2022, 11(2), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11020146 - 24 Jan 2022

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 6323

Abstract

The only part of an antigen (a protein molecule found on the surface of a pathogen) that is composed of epitopes specific to T and B cells is recognized by the human immune system (HIS). Identification of epitopes is considered critical for designing [...] Read more.

The only part of an antigen (a protein molecule found on the surface of a pathogen) that is composed of epitopes specific to T and B cells is recognized by the human immune system (HIS). Identification of epitopes is considered critical for designing an epitope-based peptide vaccine (EBPV). Although there are a number of vaccine types, EBPVs have received less attention thus far. It is important to mention that EBPVs have a great deal of untapped potential for boosting vaccination safety—they are less expensive and take a short time to produce. Thus, in order to quickly contain global pandemics such as the ongoing outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), as well as epidemics and endemics, EBPVs are considered promising vaccine types. The high mutation rate of SARS-CoV-2 has posed a great challenge to public health worldwide because either the composition of existing vaccines has to be changed or a new vaccine has to be developed to protect against its different variants. In such scenarios, time being the critical factor, EBPVs can be a promising alternative. To design an effective and viable EBPV against different strains of a pathogen, it is important to identify the putative T- and B-cell epitopes. Using the wet-lab experimental approach to identify these epitopes is time-consuming and costly because the experimental screening of a vast number of potential epitope candidates is required. Fortunately, various available machine learning (ML)-based prediction methods have reduced the burden related to the epitope mapping process by decreasing the potential epitope candidate list for experimental trials. Moreover, these methods are also cost-effective, scalable, and fast. This paper presents a systematic review of various state-of-the-art and relevant ML-based methods and tools for predicting T- and B-cell epitopes. Special emphasis is placed on highlighting and analyzing various models for predicting epitopes of SARS-CoV-2, the causative agent of COVID-19. Based on the various methods and tools discussed, future research directions for epitope prediction are presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response of the Host and Vaccine Development)

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16 pages, 322 KiB

Open AccessReview

Attacking the Intruder at the Gate: Prospects of Mucosal Anti SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines

by Kacper Karczmarzyk and Małgorzata Kęsik-Brodacka

Pathogens 2022, 11(2), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11020117 - 19 Jan 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3810

Abstract

The sudden outbreak of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic in December 2019 caused crises and health emergencies worldwide. The rapid spread of the virus created an urgent need for the development of an effective vaccine and mass immunization to achieve [...] Read more.

The sudden outbreak of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic in December 2019 caused crises and health emergencies worldwide. The rapid spread of the virus created an urgent need for the development of an effective vaccine and mass immunization to achieve herd immunity. Efforts of scientific teams at universities and pharmaceutical companies around the world allowed for the development of various types of preparations and made it possible to start the vaccination process. However, it appears that the developed vaccines are not effective enough and do not guarantee long-lasting immunity, especially for new variants of SARS-CoV-2. Considering this problem, it is promising to focus on developing a Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) mucosal vaccine. Such a preparation applied directly to the mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract might provide an immune barrier at the primary point of virus entry into the human body while inducing systemic immunity. A number of such preparations against SARS-CoV-2 are already in various phases of preclinical and clinical trials, and several of them are very close to being accepted for general use, constituting a milestone toward pandemic containment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response of the Host and Vaccine Development)

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