Emerging and Re-emerging Pathogens

A topical collection in Pathogens (ISSN 2076-0817). This collection belongs to the section "Emerging Pathogens".

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Editors

Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan
Interests: virology; immunology; viral pathogenesis; emerging diseases; re-emerging disease; influenza virus; dengue virus; HIV-1
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical, University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan
Interests: virology; immunology; tropical medicine; virus–host interaction
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
Interests: molecular epidemiology; evolution; avian influenza; pathogenicity; drug screening
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Topical Collection Information

Dear Colleagues,

In recent decades, many emerging microbial diseases have been reported to cause both animal and human infections. Although certain emerging diseases are still localized in some areas, several emerging diseases have been disseminated globally. Incidences of emerging or reemerging infectious diseases have exerted potential threats on human health due to increased cross-border travels and trades, as well as climate changes. These diseases have been shown to be increased in their dissemination in recent years. Many novel human pathogens were reported to be caused by infectious vectors or reservoirs including farm mammals, poultry, and arthropods. For example, zoonotic disease is estimated to cause around 75% of human infections. Zoonotic diseases such as avian influenza viruses, SARS-CoV-1, MERS-CoV, as well as the recent SARS-CoV-2 pandemic have been reported to cause severe human infections. These cross-species transmissions and infections were reported to lead to high mortality in human cases. It is suggested that emerging or re-emerging pathogens, especially viruses, are potential threats and should be intensively monitored and surveyed.

For this Topical Collection of Pathogens, we welcome you to submit papers on new pathogen identification, diagnosis and detection, host–pathogen interactions, pathogenicity, molecular epidemiological survey, host immune response to invasion, and novel antiviral drug development.

We look forward to publishing your latest research with new exciting findings on emerging and remerging infectious diseases.

Dr. Sheng-Fan Wang
Dr. Wenhung Wang
Dr. Arunee Thitithanyanont
Collection Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

  • virus
  • emerging and re-emerging disease
  • diagnosis
  • pathogenicity
  • anti-viral strategy
  • host–pathogen interaction
  • molecular epidemiology

Published Papers (21 papers)

2023

Jump to: 2022, 2021

9 pages, 412 KiB  
Article
Adherence to Anti-Malarial Treatment in Malaria Endemic Areas of Bangladesh
by Mohammad Sharif Hossain, Mohammad Abdul Matin, Nur-E Naznin Ferdous, Anamul Hasan, Saiful Arefeen Sazed, Amit Kumer Neogi, Sumit Chakma, Md. Atiqul Islam, Afsana Alamgir Khan, Md. Ekramul Haque, Shayla Islam, Md. Nazmul Islam, Wasif Ali Khan, Md. Akramul Islam, Rashidul Haque and Mohammad Shafiul Alam
Pathogens 2023, 12(12), 1392; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12121392 - 27 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1214
Abstract
Ensuring adherence to antimalarial treatment is crucial for achieving a radical cure and elimination of malaria, especially in hard-to-reach areas. We conducted this study to assess the current scenario of drug adherence in four endemic sub-districts of Bangladesh. Among 110 enrolled participants, 70% [...] Read more.
Ensuring adherence to antimalarial treatment is crucial for achieving a radical cure and elimination of malaria, especially in hard-to-reach areas. We conducted this study to assess the current scenario of drug adherence in four endemic sub-districts of Bangladesh. Among 110 enrolled participants, 70% were mono-infected with Plasmodium falciparum and the remaining 30% with P. vivax. The overall treatment adherence frequency was 92.7% (95% CI: 83.0–96.3%). A total of eight participants were found to be nonadherent to treatment and all of them were from Bandarban. Level of nonadherence was equally observed in two age groups: 11–17 and 18+ years. However, male participants (n = 6) were found to be more nonadherent than females (n = 2). Among 7.3% with nonadherence to treatment, a single participant with P. falciparum mono-infection refused to take medication and became nonadherent. Remaining participants stated that they were feeling well and going to work, thus leaving treatment course uncompleted. Although overall compliance with malaria medication seems good, a gradual increase in noncompliance to P. vivax malaria treatment suggests that the National Malaria Elimination Program must be enhanced and monitored to fulfil the projected malaria elimination goal before 2030 from Bangladesh. Full article
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11 pages, 3758 KiB  
Article
Zoonotic Mutation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza H5N1 Virus Identified in the Brain of Multiple Wild Carnivore Species
by Sandra Vreman, Marja Kik, Evelien Germeraad, Rene Heutink, Frank Harders, Marcel Spierenburg, Marc Engelsma, Jolianne Rijks, Judith van den Brand and Nancy Beerens
Pathogens 2023, 12(2), 168; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12020168 - 20 Jan 2023
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 27214
Abstract
Wild carnivore species infected with highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus subtype H5N1 during the 2021–2022 outbreak in the Netherlands included red fox (Vulpes vulpes), polecat (Mustela putorius), otter (Lutra lutra), and badger (Meles meles). [...] Read more.
Wild carnivore species infected with highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus subtype H5N1 during the 2021–2022 outbreak in the Netherlands included red fox (Vulpes vulpes), polecat (Mustela putorius), otter (Lutra lutra), and badger (Meles meles). Most of the animals were submitted for testing because they showed neurological signs. In this study, the HPAI H5N1 virus was detected by PCR and/or immunohistochemistry in 11 animals and was primarily present in brain tissue, often associated with a (meningo) encephalitis in the cerebrum. In contrast, the virus was rarely detected in the respiratory tract and intestinal tract and associated lesions were minimal. Full genome sequencing followed by phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that these carnivore viruses were related to viruses detected in wild birds in the Netherlands. The carnivore viruses themselves were not closely related, and the infected carnivores did not cluster geographically, suggesting that they were infected separately. The mutation PB2-E627K was identified in most carnivore virus genomes, providing evidence for mammalian adaptation. This study showed that brain samples should be included in wild life surveillance programs for the reliable detection of the HPAI H5N1 virus in mammals. Surveillance of the wild carnivore population and notification to the Veterinary Authority are important from a one-heath perspective, and instrumental to pandemic preparedness. Full article
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14 pages, 3136 KiB  
Systematic Review
Clinical Characteristics of Human Mpox (Monkeypox) in 2022: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
by Qi Liu, Leiwen Fu, Bingyi Wang, Yinghui Sun, Xinsheng Wu, Xin Peng, Yuwei Li, Yi-Fan Lin, Thomas Fitzpatrick, Sten H. Vermund and Huachun Zou
Pathogens 2023, 12(1), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12010146 - 15 Jan 2023
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 3453
Abstract
Since May 2022, large numbers of human mpox (previously known as monkeypox) cases have been reported in non-endemic regions. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to elucidate clinical characteristics of the current mpox outbreak. Our systematic review and meta-analysis were undertaken according [...] Read more.
Since May 2022, large numbers of human mpox (previously known as monkeypox) cases have been reported in non-endemic regions. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to elucidate clinical characteristics of the current mpox outbreak. Our systematic review and meta-analysis were undertaken according to PRISMA and MOOSE guidelines. We searched PubMed, EMBASE, and Web of Science for publications between 1 January and 11 November 2022. Random-effects models were used to pool results. Heterogeneity was assessed using I2. This study is registered with PROSPERO, CRD42022355590. Skin lesions (95.2%, 95% CI [93.3–96.9%]), fever (58.4%, [54.9–61.8%]) and lymphadenopathy (53.0%, [48.7–57.3%]) were the most common symptoms. The most common dermatological manifestations were anogenital lesions (65.7%, [57.8–73.0%]), and the most common lymphadenopathy was inguinal (46.8%, [40.6–53.0%]). There were no differences in symptoms including malaise, fever, headache, and genital, anal, and oropharyngeal lesions according to HIV infection status. Median age of patients varied from 15 to 57.5 years (median, 35 years). The median proportion of men who had sex with men (MSM) was 100.0% (20.6–100.0%). The median proportion of patients who reported recent sexual exposure was 99.2% (14.3–100.0%). The median proportion of PLHIV was 42.2% (0.0–100.0%). Skin lesions, fever, inguinal lymphadenopathy, and anogenital lesions were the most common symptoms of mpox reported in the current outbreak. Existing guidelines should be updated to reflect these clinical manifestations and groups at highest risk of infection, MSM in particular. Full article
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2022

Jump to: 2023, 2021

14 pages, 3062 KiB  
Article
Fusarium equiseti as an Emerging Foliar Pathogen of Lettuce in Greece: Identification and Development of a Real-Time PCR for Quantification of Inoculum in Soil Samples
by George T. Tziros, Anastasios Samaras and George S. Karaoglanidis
Pathogens 2022, 11(11), 1357; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11111357 - 15 Nov 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2472
Abstract
Lettuce is the most commonly cultivated leafy vegetable in Greece, available in the market throughout the year. In this study, an emerging foliar disease observed in commercial farms has been associated to the pathogen Fusarium equiseti, a member of the Fusarium incarnatum-equiseti [...] Read more.
Lettuce is the most commonly cultivated leafy vegetable in Greece, available in the market throughout the year. In this study, an emerging foliar disease observed in commercial farms has been associated to the pathogen Fusarium equiseti, a member of the Fusarium incarnatum-equiseti species complex (FIESC). Thirty F. equiseti isolates obtained from symptomatic lettuce plants were identified on the basis of morphology and evaluated for their pathogenicity. The isolates were further characterized using amplification and sequence analysis of the internal transcribed region (ITS-rDNA), and of the translation elongation factor 1-alpha (TEF1-a), calmodulin (CAM), beta-tubulin (Bt), and small subunit (SSU) genes. Moreover, a novel RT-qPCR assay was developed, designing a primer pair and a probe based on the TEF1-a sequences. This assay showed high specificity, amplifying F. equiseti DNA samples, while no amplification product was observed from samples of other common soilborne fungi. The generated RT-qPCR assay could be a useful tool for the detection and quantification of F. equiseti in soil samples deriving from fields cultivated with lettuce and other leafy vegetables, hosts of this specific pathogen. Full article
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15 pages, 2333 KiB  
Article
A Recombinant Vaccine-like Strain of Lumpy Skin Disease Virus Causes Low-Level Infection of Cattle through Virus-Inoculated Feed
by Irina Shumilova, Alexander Nesterov, Olga Byadovskaya, Pavel Prutnikov, David B. Wallace, Maria Mokeeva, Valeriy Pronin, Aleksandr Kononov, Ilya Chvala and Alexander Sprygin
Pathogens 2022, 11(8), 920; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11080920 - 16 Aug 2022
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2058
Abstract
Since 1989, lumpy skin disease of cattle (LSD) has spread out of Africa via the Middle East northwards and eastwards into Russia, the Far East and South-East Asia. It is now threatening to become a worldwide pandemic, with Australia possibly next in its [...] Read more.
Since 1989, lumpy skin disease of cattle (LSD) has spread out of Africa via the Middle East northwards and eastwards into Russia, the Far East and South-East Asia. It is now threatening to become a worldwide pandemic, with Australia possibly next in its path. One of the research gaps on the disease concerns its main mode of transmission, most likely via flying insect vectors such as biting flies or mosquitoes. Direct or indirect contact transmission is possible, but appears to be an inefficient route, although there is evidence to support the direct contact route for the newly detected recombinant strains first isolated in Russia. In this study, we used experimental bulls and fed them via virus-inoculated feed to evaluate the indirect contact route. To provide deeper insights, we ran two parallel experiments using the same design to discover differences that involved classical field strain Dagestan/2015 LSDV and recombinant vaccine-like Saratov/2017. Following the attempted indirect contact transmission of the virus from the inoculated feed via the alimentary canal, all bulls in the Dagestan/2015 group remained healthy and did not seroconvert by the end of the experiment, whereas for those in the Saratov/2017 recombinant virus group, of the five bulls fed on virus-inoculated feed, three remained clinically healthy, while two displayed evidence of a mild infection. These results provide support for recombinant virus transmission via the alimentary canal. In addition, of particular note, the negative control in-contact bull in this group exhibited a biphasic fever at days 10 and 20, developed lesions from day 13 onwards, and seroconverted by day 31. Two explanations are feasible here: one is the in-contact animal was somehow able to feed on some of the virus-inoculated bread left over from adjacent animals, but in the case here of the individual troughs being used, that was not likely; the other is the virus was transmitted from the virus-fed animals via an airborne route. Across the infected animals, the virus was detectable in blood from days 18 to 29 and in nasal discharge from days 20 to 42. Post-mortem and histological examinations were also indicative of LSDV infection, supporting further evidence for rapid, in F transmission of this virus. This is the first report of recombinant LSDV strain transmitting via the alimentary mode. Full article
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8 pages, 1875 KiB  
Communication
First Report of a Complete Genome Sequence of a Variant African Swine Fever Virus in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam
by Nguyen Duc Hien, Lam Thanh Nguyen, Le Trung Hoang, Nguyen Ngoc Bich, To My Quyen, Norikazu Isoda and Yoshihiro Sakoda
Pathogens 2022, 11(7), 797; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11070797 - 15 Jul 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2141
Abstract
The objective of this study is to report the complete-genome sequence of a field African swine fever (ASF) virus (ASFV), namely ASF/VN/CanTho-OM/2021, which caused a fatal outbreak in domestic pigs in the Mekong Delta. Complete-genome sequencing detected an 18 bp nucleotide deletion in [...] Read more.
The objective of this study is to report the complete-genome sequence of a field African swine fever (ASF) virus (ASFV), namely ASF/VN/CanTho-OM/2021, which caused a fatal outbreak in domestic pigs in the Mekong Delta. Complete-genome sequencing detected an 18 bp nucleotide deletion in the EP402R gene (encoding for serotype-specific proteins CD2v) of ASF/VN/CanTho-OM/2021, which was determined to belong to genotype 2 and serotype 8. This mutation pattern was confirmed as unique in GenBank; thus, ASF/VN/CanTho-OM/2021 can be considered a novel variant, with a potential change of sero-characteristics within genotype 2. An additional unique mutation of 78 bp nucleotide insertion was also observed in the B475L gene. Additionally, four copies of tandem repeat sequences were found in the intergenic region (IGR) located between I73R and I329L, previously assigned as the IGR III variant. This study is the first to report the complete genome of ASFV in the Mekong Delta, and it highlights the necessity of strengthening molecular surveillance to provide further knowledge on the evolution and incursion of ASFV in the Mekong Delta and Vietnam. Full article
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7 pages, 260 KiB  
Article
Exploratory Study of the Frequency of Detection and Tissue Distribution of Porcine Circovirus 3 (PCV-3) in Pig Fetuses at Different Gestational Ages
by Albert Ruiz, Viviane Saporiti, Eva Huerta, Mònica Balasch, Joaquim Segalés and Marina Sibila
Pathogens 2022, 11(2), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11020118 - 20 Jan 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1465
Abstract
Porcine circovirus 3 (PCV-3) has been associated with several pig diseases. Despite the pathogenicity of this virus has not been completely clarified, reproductive disorders are consistently associated with its infection. The aim of the present work was to analyze the presence of PCV-3 [...] Read more.
Porcine circovirus 3 (PCV-3) has been associated with several pig diseases. Despite the pathogenicity of this virus has not been completely clarified, reproductive disorders are consistently associated with its infection. The aim of the present work was to analyze the presence of PCV-3 DNA in tissues from pig fetuses from different gestational timepoints. The fetuses were obtained either from farms with no reproductive problems (NRP, n = 249; all of them from the last third of gestation) or from a slaughterhouse (S, n = 51; 49 of the second-third of gestation and 2 from the third one). Tissues collected included brain, heart, lung, kidney, and/or spleen. Overall, the frequency of detection of PCV-3 was significantly higher in fetuses from the last third of the gestation (69/251, 27.5%) when compared to those from the second-third (5/49, 10.2%), although the viral loads were not significantly different. Moreover, the frequency of detection in NRP fetuses (69/249, 27.7%) was significantly higher than in S ones (5/51, 9.8%). Furthermore, PCV-3 DNA was detected in all tissue types analyzed. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates a higher frequency of PCV-3 DNA detection in fetuses from late periods of the gestation and highlights wide organ distributions of the virus in pig fetuses. Full article

2021

Jump to: 2023, 2022

12 pages, 1293 KiB  
Article
Surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 in Sewage Treatment Plants between January 2020 and July 2021 in Taiwan
by Wei-Lun Huang, Wen-Bin Fann, Rong-Jun Shen, Yi Chu and Jyh-Yuan Yang
Pathogens 2021, 10(12), 1611; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10121611 - 10 Dec 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2821
Abstract
An outbreak of a new type of coronavirus pneumonia (COVID-19) began in Wuhan, Hubei Province, China, at the end of 2019, and it later spread to other areas of China and around the world. Taiwan reported the first confirmed case from an individual [...] Read more.
An outbreak of a new type of coronavirus pneumonia (COVID-19) began in Wuhan, Hubei Province, China, at the end of 2019, and it later spread to other areas of China and around the world. Taiwan reported the first confirmed case from an individual who returned from Wuhan, China, in January 2020 for Chinese New Year. Monitoring microbes in environmental sewage is an important epidemiological indicator, especially for pathogens that can be shed in feces such as poliovirus. We have conducted additional SARS-CoV-2 sewage testing since January 2020 using a well-established poliovirus environmental sewage surveillance system in Taiwan. Wastewater samples were collected from 11 sewage treatment plants from different parts of Taiwan twice a month for laboratory testing. By the end of July 2021, 397 wastewater specimens had been tested, and two samples were positive for SARS-CoV-2. These two wastewater samples were collected in the northern region of Taiwan from Taipei (site A) and New Taipei City (site C) at the beginning of June 2021. This result is consistent with the significant increase in confirmed COVID-19 cases observed in the same period of time. As the pandemic ebbed after June, the wastewater samples in these areas also tested negative for SARS-CoV-2 in July 2021. Full article
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11 pages, 447 KiB  
Article
Screening for Vaginal and Endocervical Infections in the First Trimester of Pregnancy? A Study That Ignites an Old Debate
by Leonie Toboso Silgo, Sara Cruz-Melguizo, María Luisa de la Cruz Conty, María Begoña Encinas Pardilla, María Muñoz Algarra, Yolanda Nieto Jiménez, Alexandra Arranz Friediger and Óscar Martínez-Pérez
Pathogens 2021, 10(12), 1610; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10121610 - 10 Dec 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2628
Abstract
Objectives: Vaginal and endocervical infections are considered a global health problem, especially after recent evidence of their association with preterm delivery and other adverse obstetric outcomes. Still, there is no consensus on the efficacy of a screening strategy for these infections in the [...] Read more.
Objectives: Vaginal and endocervical infections are considered a global health problem, especially after recent evidence of their association with preterm delivery and other adverse obstetric outcomes. Still, there is no consensus on the efficacy of a screening strategy for these infections in the first trimester of pregnancy. This study evaluated their prevalence and whether screening and treatment resulted as effective in reducing pregnancy and perinatal complications. Methods: A single-center prospective observational study was designed; a sample size of 400 first-trimester pregnant women was established and they were recruited between March 2016–October 2019 at the Puerta de Hierro University Hospital (Spain). They were screened for vaginal and endocervical infections and treated in case of abnormal flora. Pregnancy and delivery outcomes were compared between abnormal and normal flora groups by univariate analysis. Results: 109 patients had an abnormal flora result (27.2%). The most frequently detected infection was Ureaplasma urealyticum (12.3%), followed by Candida spp. (11.8%), bacterial vaginosis (5%), Mycoplasma hominis (1.2%) and Trichomonas vaginalis (0.8%). Patients with abnormal flora had a 5-fold increased risk of preterm premature rupture of membranes (5.3% vs. 1.1% of patients with normal flora, Odds Ratio 5.11, 95% Confidence Interval 1.20–21.71, p = 0.028). No significant differences were observed regarding preterm delivery or neonatal morbidity. Conclusions: Considering the morbimortality related to prematurity and that the results of our study suggest that the early treatment of abnormal flora could improve perinatal outcomes, the implementation of a screening program during the first trimester should be considered. Full article
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14 pages, 1665 KiB  
Article
Direct Viral RNA Detection of SARS-CoV-2 and DENV in Inactivated Samples by Real-Time RT-qPCR: Implications for Diagnosis in Resource Limited Settings with Flavivirus Co-Circulation
by Zhan Qiu Mao, Mizuki Fukuta, Jean Claude Balingit, Thi Thanh Ngan Nguyen, Co Thach Nguyen, Shingo Inoue, Thi Thu Thuy Nguyen, Le Khanh Hang Nguyen, Noboru Minakawa, Kouichi Morita, Thi Quynh Mai Le, Futoshi Hasebe and Meng Ling Moi
Pathogens 2021, 10(12), 1558; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10121558 - 29 Nov 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3213
Abstract
The RT-qPCR method remains the gold standard and first-line diagnostic method for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 and flaviviruses, especially in the early stage of viral infection. Rapid and accurate viral detection is a starting point in the containment of the COVID-19 pandemic and [...] Read more.
The RT-qPCR method remains the gold standard and first-line diagnostic method for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 and flaviviruses, especially in the early stage of viral infection. Rapid and accurate viral detection is a starting point in the containment of the COVID-19 pandemic and flavivirus outbreaks. However, the shortage of diagnostic reagents and supplies, especially in resource-limited countries that experience co-circulation of SARS-CoV-2 and flaviviruses, are limitations that may result in lesser availability of RT-qPCR-based diagnostic tests. In this study, the utility of RNA-free extraction methods was assessed for the direct detection of SARS-CoV-2 and DENV-2 in heat-inactivated or chemical-inactivated samples. The findings demonstrate that direct real-time RT-qPCR is a feasible option in comparison to conventional real-time RT-qPCR based on viral genome extraction-based methods. The utility of heat-inactivation and direct real-time RT-qPCR for SARS-CoV-2, DENV-2 viral RNA detection was demonstrated by using clinical samples of SARS-CoV-2 and DENV-2 and spiked cell culture samples of SARS-CoV-2 and DENV-2. This study provides a simple alternative workflow for flavivirus and SARS-CoV-2 detection that includes heat inactivation and viral RNA extraction-free protocols, with aims to reduce the risk of exposure during processing of SARS-CoV-2 biological specimens and to overcome the supply-chain bottleneck, particularly in resource limited settings with flavivirus co-circulation. Full article
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9 pages, 1236 KiB  
Article
Molecular Characterization of Associated Pathogens in Febrile Patients during Inter-Epidemic Periods of Urban Arboviral Diseases in Tapachula Southern Mexico
by Geovana Calvo-Anguiano, José de Jesús Lugo-Trampe, Gustavo Ponce-García, Angel Lugo-Trampe, Laura Elia Martinez-Garza, Marisol Ibarra-Ramirez, Luis Daniel Campos-Acevedo, Sandra Caballero-Sosa, Alan Esteban Juache-Villagrana, Ildefonso Fernández-Salas, Adriana Elizabeth Flores-Suarez, Iram Pablo Rodriguez-Sanchez and Karina del Carmen Trujillo-Murillo
Pathogens 2021, 10(11), 1450; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10111450 - 08 Nov 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1890
Abstract
Emerging and re-emerging vector-borne infections are a global public health threat. In endemic regions, fever is the main reason for medical attention, and the etiological agent of such fever is not usually identified. In this study, non-specific febrile pathogens were molecularly characterized in [...] Read more.
Emerging and re-emerging vector-borne infections are a global public health threat. In endemic regions, fever is the main reason for medical attention, and the etiological agent of such fever is not usually identified. In this study, non-specific febrile pathogens were molecularly characterized in serum samples from 253 patients suspected of arbovirus infection. The samples were collected in the southern border region of Mexico from April to June 2015, and February to March 2016. ZIKV, CHIKV, DENV, leptospirosis, and rickettsiosis were detected by qPCR and nested PCR to identify flavivirus and alphavirus genera. The results indicated that 71.93% of the samples were positive for CHIKV, 0.79% for ZIKV, and 0.39% for DENV, with the number positive for CHIKV increasing to 76.67% and those positive for ZIKV increasing to 15.41% under the nested PCR technique. Leptospira Kmetyi was identified for the first time in Mexico, with a prevalence of 3.16%. This is the first report of ZIKV in Mexico, as well the first detection of the virus in early 2015. In conclusion, the etiological agent of fever was determined in 94% of the analyzed samples. Full article
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9 pages, 988 KiB  
Article
Sustained Antiviral and Liver Protection by a Nasal Therapeutic Vaccine (NASVAC, Containing Both HBsAg and HBcAg) in Patients with Chronic Hepatitis B: 2-Year Follow-Up of Phase III Clinical Trial
by Sheikh Mohammad Fazle Akbar, Mamun Al Mahtab, Julio Cesar Aguilar, Osamu Yoshida, Eduardo Penton, Guillen Nieto Gerardo and Yoichi Hiasa
Pathogens 2021, 10(11), 1440; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10111440 - 05 Nov 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2821
Abstract
A phase III clinical trial in treatment-naïve patients with chronic hepatitis B (CHB) revealed the safety and considerable therapeutic efficacy of a vaccine containing both hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) and hepatitis B core antigen (HBcAg) (NASVAC) at the end of treatment (EOT) [...] Read more.
A phase III clinical trial in treatment-naïve patients with chronic hepatitis B (CHB) revealed the safety and considerable therapeutic efficacy of a vaccine containing both hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) and hepatitis B core antigen (HBcAg) (NASVAC) at the end of treatment (EOT) and 24 weeks after EOT. Two years after EOT, we checked HBV DNA, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg). The data reveal that 33 of 66 NASVAC-recipient CHB patients became negative for HBV DNA in the blood two years after EOT. The ALT levels were within the upper limit of normal (ULN) in 37 patients, although all 66 CHB patients had elevated ALT (above ULN) before the start of therapy. Out of the total twelve HBeAg-positive patients, eight patients became negative for HBeAg. None of the patients developed cirrhosis of the liver within this period. NASVAC is a finite treatment regimen with sustained antiviral and liver-protecting properties. This study is the first to report follow-up data of immune therapy for CHB. NASVAC, an immune therapy of finite duration, is endowed with sustained antiviral and liver protection properties in CHB patients. Full article
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5 pages, 1391 KiB  
Case Report
Cutaneous Granulomatosis Revealing Whipple’s Disease: Value of Tropheryma whipplei Polymerase Chain Reaction Assay for the Diagnosis
by Souheil Zayet, Pierre Isnard, Jacinta Bustamante, David Boutboul, Sarra Abroug and Nabil Belfeki
Pathogens 2021, 10(11), 1438; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10111438 - 05 Nov 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2166
Abstract
Whipple’s Disease is a rare systemic infectious disease caused by the ubiquitous actinomycetes Tropheryma whipplei (T. whipplei). We report herein a rare case of a cutaneous granulo matosis with hypercalcemia as an unusual presenting feature of Whipple’s disease. The diagnosis of the bacteria [...] Read more.
Whipple’s Disease is a rare systemic infectious disease caused by the ubiquitous actinomycetes Tropheryma whipplei (T. whipplei). We report herein a rare case of a cutaneous granulo matosis with hypercalcemia as an unusual presenting feature of Whipple’s disease. The diagnosis of the bacteria was obtained from skin and inguinal lymph node biopsy (16 rDNA PCR screening and histological examination using PAS staining). T. whipplei was also identified on saliva and stool specimens, using specific PCR and colonic biopsies. Treatment with hydroxychloroquine and doxycycline allowed a rapid resolution of symptoms with a complete recovery. Full article
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7 pages, 267 KiB  
Article
Leclercia adecarboxylata as Emerging Pathogen in Human Infections: Clinical Features and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing
by Souheil Zayet, Stephane Lang, Pauline Garnier, Alix Pierron, Julie Plantin, Lynda Toko, Pierre-Yves Royer, Marc Villemain, Timothée Klopfenstein and Vincent Gendrin
Pathogens 2021, 10(11), 1399; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10111399 - 28 Oct 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5417
Abstract
(1) Background: Leclercia adecarboxylata (L. adecarboxylata) is a gram-negative bacillus of the Enterobacteriaceae family, which is uncommonly isolated from clinical specimens. L. adecarboxylata is considered as an aquatic opportunistic pathogen and most of the human infections are polymicrobial and usually occur [...] Read more.
(1) Background: Leclercia adecarboxylata (L. adecarboxylata) is a gram-negative bacillus of the Enterobacteriaceae family, which is uncommonly isolated from clinical specimens. L. adecarboxylata is considered as an aquatic opportunistic pathogen and most of the human infections are polymicrobial and usually occur in immunocompromised hosts. (2) Methods: In this retrospective study, we included all L. adecarboxylata strains since the introduction of MALDI-TOF MS in the Microbiology Department of Nord Franche-Comté Hospital, France (from 1 March 2015 to 31 July 2019). We studied demographic characteristics, comorbidities, characteristics of the current infection and outcome as well as antimicrobial susceptibility testing in all isolates. (3) Results: A total of 8 samples were identified (in 6 patients (4M/2F), with a recurrent L. adecarboxylata infection in 2 patients). The patients’ mean age was 66.2 years (range: 19–84). All patients were considered as immunocompetent, except a peritoneal dialysis patient with kidney transplantation. An exposition to an aquatic environment was identified in one patient. The most prevalent clinical feature was catheter-associated male urinary tract infection (in 3 cases) followed by ventilator-associated pneumonia (in 2 cases). One of 6 patients presented L. adecarboxylata bacteremia. L. adecarboxylata was part of a polymicrobial infection in 4 patients. The isolates showed a high susceptibility to all tested antibiotics, except one strain, which was resistant to fosfomycin. All patients with L. adecarboxylata infection were treated with antibiotics with a favorable outcome. (4) Conclusion: This study confirms the pathogenicity of L. adecarboxylata, even in immunocompetent patients, with a high susceptibility to antibiotics. Full article
11 pages, 1273 KiB  
Article
The Prevalence and Serological Association of Hepatitis D Virus Genotypes in Taiwan
by Keva Joseph, Ciniso Sylvester Shabangu, Tyng-Yuan Jang, Chung-Feng Huang, Chia-Yen Dai, Jee-Fu Huang, Wan-Long Chuang, Ming-Lung Yu and Shu-Chi Wang
Pathogens 2021, 10(10), 1227; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10101227 - 23 Sep 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2318
Abstract
Hepatitis Delta Virus (HDV) is an RNA virus that requires the presence of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) to propagate into hepatocytes, with Genotype I being more prevalent globally. However, the prevalence of HDV genotypes in Taiwan is unknown. Accordingly, a cohort including [...] Read more.
Hepatitis Delta Virus (HDV) is an RNA virus that requires the presence of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) to propagate into hepatocytes, with Genotype I being more prevalent globally. However, the prevalence of HDV genotypes in Taiwan is unknown. Accordingly, a cohort including 24 chronic HBV patients who received nucleos(t)ides (NUCs) between January 2002 and July 2018 was used to determine HDV genotypes and genotype specific serological association in chronic HBV carriers. HDV-positive genotypes in 18/24 (75%) males and 6/24 (25%) females were identified among chronic HBV patients. Viremia was lower in HDV-IV patients than in patients affected with other HDV genotypes (1.34 log10 copies/mL vs. 3.30 log10 copies/mL; p = 0.009). A logistics regression analysis revealed that HDV-IV was inversely proportional to HDV RNA (odds ratio [OR]/95% confidence intervals [CI]: 0.370/0.164–0.830; p = 0.017). The serologic association study indicated lower levels of creatinine (p = 0.047) and HDV-RNA (p = 0.009) in the HDV-IV group than the non-HDV-IV group but did not indicate any significant differences in the AST, ALT, bilirubin levels or other laboratory test factors. The three genotypes evident in Taiwan were HDV-I (4/24, 16.7%), HDV-II (6/24, 25.0%), and HDV-IV (14/24, 58.3%), and HDV-IV is the predominant HDV genotype in Taiwan. These results anticipate a clear understanding of HDV genotype serological association in chronic HBV carriers. Full article
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7 pages, 328 KiB  
Brief Report
A Retrospective Survey among SARS-CoV-1 Infected Healthcare Workers after Three Years Post-Infection
by Szu-Wei Huang, Aspiro Nayim Urbina, Yi-Ming Arthur Chen and Sheng-Fan Wang
Pathogens 2021, 10(9), 1078; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10091078 - 25 Aug 2021
Viewed by 1710
Abstract
Healthcare workers (HCWs) are on the frontline fighting several infectious diseases including SARS-CoV-1 and COVID-19. Coronavirus neutralizing antibodies (nAbs) were recently reported to last for a certain period. The factors affecting nAbs’ existence remain unclear. Here, we retrospectively analyzed the factors correlating with [...] Read more.
Healthcare workers (HCWs) are on the frontline fighting several infectious diseases including SARS-CoV-1 and COVID-19. Coronavirus neutralizing antibodies (nAbs) were recently reported to last for a certain period. The factors affecting nAbs’ existence remain unclear. Here, we retrospectively analyzed the factors correlating with nAbs’ from SARS-CoV-1 long-term convalescence HCWs in Taiwan. One hundred and thirty SARS-CoV-1 convalescent patients were recruited between August 2006 and March 2007. Blood samples were collected to determine the anti-nucleocapsid (N) and anti-spike (S) antibodies’ existence status and neutralization ability. Neutralization ability was measured using SARS-CoV-1 pseudotyped viruses. Statistical analysis of factors associated with anti-SARS-CoV-1 antibodies’ existence status was determined using SAS software. 46.2% SARS-CoV-1 convalescent patients presented anti-N antibody after three years post-infection. Among sixty participants, ten participants co-presented anti-S antibodies. Eight participants with anti-S antibody displayed neutralization ability to SARS-CoV-1. The gender, age, and disease severity of participants did not affect the anti-N antibody existence status, whereas the anti-S antibody is significantly reduced in participants with old age (>50 years, p = 0.0434) after three years post SARS-CoV-1 infection. This study suggests that age is an important factor correlated with the duration of SARS-CoV-1 protective antibody existence status. Full article
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18 pages, 661 KiB  
Review
Potential for Developing Plant-Derived Candidate Vaccines and Biologics against Emerging Coronavirus Infections
by Balamurugan Shanmugaraj, Konlavat Siriwattananon, Ashwini Malla and Waranyoo Phoolcharoen
Pathogens 2021, 10(8), 1051; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10081051 - 19 Aug 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5544
Abstract
The emerging human coronavirus infections in the 21st century remain a major public health crisis causing worldwide impact and challenging the global health care system. The virus is circulating in several zoonotic hosts and continuously evolving, causing occasional outbreaks due to spill-over events [...] Read more.
The emerging human coronavirus infections in the 21st century remain a major public health crisis causing worldwide impact and challenging the global health care system. The virus is circulating in several zoonotic hosts and continuously evolving, causing occasional outbreaks due to spill-over events occurring between animals and humans. Hence, the development of effective vaccines or therapeutic interventions is the current global priority in order to reduce disease severity, frequent outbreaks, and to prevent future infections. Vaccine development for newly emerging pathogens takes a long time, which hinders rapid immunization programs. The concept of plant-based pharmaceuticals can be readily applied to meet the recombinant protein demand by means of transient expression. Plants are evolved as an expression platform, and they bring a combination of unique interests in terms of rapid scalability, flexibility, and economy for industrial-scale production of effective vaccines, diagnostic reagents, and other biopharmaceuticals. Plants offer safe biologics to fulfill emergency demands, especially during pandemic situations or outbreaks caused by emerging strains. This review highlights the features of a plant expression platform for producing recombinant biopharmaceuticals to combat coronavirus infections with emphasis on COVID-19 vaccine and biologics development. Full article
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11 pages, 467 KiB  
Study Protocol
Nationwide Seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 IgG Antibodies among Four Groups of Primary Health-Care Workers and Their Household Contacts 6 Months after the Initiation of the COVID-19 Vaccination Campaign in France: SeroPRIM Study Protocol
by Marie Pouquet, Dorine Decarreaux, Pol Prévot-Monsacré, Corentin Hervé, Andréas Werner, Brigitte Grosgogeat, Hélène Blanché, Pascaline Rabiega, Julien Laupie, Fabienne Kochert, Nathalie Abraham, Jean-Marc Sebaoun, Xavier de Lamballerie, Remi Charrel, Cecile Souty, Ibrahima Camara, Jeanne Pergeline, Harold Noël, Caroline Guerrisi, Sylvie van der Werf, Fabrice Carrat, Thomas Hanslik, Thierry Blanchon and Alessandra Falchiadd Show full author list remove Hide full author list
Pathogens 2021, 10(7), 911; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10070911 - 20 Jul 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2645
Abstract
Background: The protocol study will focus on the seroprevalence of IgG antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 achieved by vaccination and/or natural protection as well as the history, symptoms, and risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 in four primary health-care workers (PHCWs) and their household contacts in metropolitan [...] Read more.
Background: The protocol study will focus on the seroprevalence of IgG antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 achieved by vaccination and/or natural protection as well as the history, symptoms, and risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 in four primary health-care workers (PHCWs) and their household contacts in metropolitan France. Methods: Here, we propose a protocol for a nationwide survey to determine the seroprevalence of IgG antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 achieved by vaccination and/or natural protection in four PHCW populations (general practitioners, pediatricians, pharmacists and assistants, and dentists and assistants) and their household contacts. Participants will be included from June to July 2021 (Phase 1) among PHCW populations located throughout metropolitan France. They will be asked to provide a range of demographic and behavioral information since the first SARS-CoV-2 wave and a self-sampled dried blood spot. Phase 1 will involve also a questionnaire and serological study of PHCWs’ household contacts. Seroprevalence will be estimated using two ELISAs designed to detect specific IgG antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 in humoral fluid, and these results will be confirmed using a virus neutralization test. This study will be repeated from November to December 2021 (Phase 2) to evaluate the evolution of immune status achieved by vaccination and/or natural protection of PHCWs and to describe the history of exposure to SARS-CoV-2. Full article
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17 pages, 750 KiB  
Brief Report
Pulmonary Findings of [18F]FDG PET/CT Images on Asymptomatic COVID-19 Patients
by Tzu-Chuan Ho, Chin-Chuan Chang, Hung-Pin Chan, Ying-Fong Huang, Yi-Ming Arthur Chen, Kuo-Pin Chuang, Che-Hsin Lee, Cheng-Hui Yuan, Yu-Zhen Deng, Ming-Hui Yang and Yu-Chang Tyan
Pathogens 2021, 10(7), 839; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10070839 - 03 Jul 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2834
Abstract
During the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, several case studies demonstrated that many asymptomatic patients with COVID-19 underwent fluorine-18 fluorodeoxyglucose ([18F]FDG) positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) examination for various indications. However, there is a lack of literature to characterize the pattern [...] Read more.
During the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, several case studies demonstrated that many asymptomatic patients with COVID-19 underwent fluorine-18 fluorodeoxyglucose ([18F]FDG) positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) examination for various indications. However, there is a lack of literature to characterize the pattern of [18F]FDG PET/CT imaging on asymptomatic COVID-19 patients. Therefore, a systematic review to analyze the pulmonary findings of [18F]FDG PET/CT on asymptomatic COVID-19 patients was conducted. This systematic review was performed under the guidelines of PRISMA. PubMed, Medline, and Web of Science were used to search for articles for this review. Articles with the key words: “asymptomatic”, “COVID-19”, “[18F]FDG PET/CT”, and “nuclear medicine” were searched for from 1 January 2020 to 20 May 2021. Thirty asymptomatic patients with COVID-19 were included in the eighteen articles. These patients had a mean age of 62.25 ± 14.85 years (male: 67.71 ± 12.00; female: 56.79 ± 15.81). [18F]FDG-avid lung lesions were found in 93.33% (28/30) of total patients. The major lesion was [18F]FDG-avid multiple ground-glass opacities (GGOs) in the peripheral or subpleural region in bilateral lungs, followed by the consolidation. The intensity of [18F]FDG uptake in multiple GGOs was 5.605 ± 2.914 (range from 2 to 12) for maximal standardized uptake value (SUVmax). [18F]FDG-avid thoracic lymph nodes (LN) were observed in 40% (12/40) of the patients. They mostly appeared in both mediastinal and hilar regions with an SUVmax of 5.8 ± 2.93 (range from 2.5 to 9.6). The [18F]FDG uptake was observed in multiple GGOs, as well as in the mediastinal and hilar LNs. These are common patterns in PET/CT of asymptomatic patients with COVID-19. Full article
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5 pages, 216 KiB  
Editorial
Emerging and Re-Emerging Diseases
by Wen-Hung Wang, Arunee Thitithanyanont, Aspiro Nayim Urbina and Sheng-Fan Wang
Pathogens 2021, 10(7), 827; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10070827 - 30 Jun 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5372
Abstract
Throughout history, infectious diseases have vastly impacted human civilization [...] Full article
9 pages, 708 KiB  
Brief Report
Chloroquine and Hydroxychloroquine: Efficacy in the Treatment of the COVID-19
by Tzu-Chuan Ho, Yung-Hsuan Wang, Yi-Ling Chen, Wan-Chi Tsai, Che-Hsin Lee, Kuo-Pin Chuang, Yi-Ming Arthur Chen, Cheng-Hui Yuan, Sheng-Yow Ho, Ming-Hui Yang and Yu-Chang Tyan
Pathogens 2021, 10(2), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10020217 - 17 Feb 2021
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 5614
Abstract
Chloroquine (CQ) and its derivative, hydroxychloroquine (HCQ), have attracted wide attention for treating coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). However, conflicting outcomes have been found in COVID-19 clinical trials after treatment with CQ or HCQ. To date, it remains uncertain whether CQ and HCQ are [...] Read more.
Chloroquine (CQ) and its derivative, hydroxychloroquine (HCQ), have attracted wide attention for treating coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). However, conflicting outcomes have been found in COVID-19 clinical trials after treatment with CQ or HCQ. To date, it remains uncertain whether CQ and HCQ are beneficial antiviral drugs for combating COVID-19. We performed a systematic review to depict the efficacy of CQ or HCQ for the treatment of COVID-19. The guidelines of PRISMA were used to conduct this systematic review. We searched through articles from PubMed, Web of Science and other sources that were published from 1 January 2020 to 31 October 2020. The search terms included combinations of human COVID-19, CQ, and HCQ. Eleven qualitative articles comprising of four clinical trials and seven observation studies were utilized in our systematic review. The analysis shows that CQ and HCQ do not have efficacy in treatment of patients with severe COVID-19. In addition, CQ and HCQ have caused life-threatening adverse reactions which included cardiac arrest, electrocardiogram modification, and QTc prolongation, particularly during the treatment of patients with severe COVID-19. Our systematic review suggested that CQ and HCQ are not beneficial antiviral drugs for curing patients with severe COVID-19. The treatment effect of CQ and HCQ is not only null but also causes serious side effects, which may cause potential cardiotoxicity in severe COVID-19 patients. Full article
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