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4 pages, 206 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Wildlife, Reservoir of Zoonotic Agents: Moving beyond Denial and Fear

by Bernard Davoust and Younes Laidoudi

Pathogens 2023, 12(9), 1081; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12091081 - 25 Aug 2023

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Abstract

Human infections that originate in animals are quite frequent and warrant further investigation [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance of Zoonotic Pathogens Carried by Wildlife)

Research

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10 pages, 794 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Distribution of Salmonella enterica in European Hedgehogs in Northern Italy

by Maya Carrera, Clara Tolini, Tiziana Trogu, Andrea Boscarino, Vito Tranquillo, Martina Munari, Emanuele Callegari, Davide Tartari, Ana Moreno and Silva Rubini

Pathogens 2023, 12(7), 946; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12070946 - 17 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 936

Abstract

Growing attention is being given to the European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) because of its synanthropic behaviour and its potential role in harbouring parasites, viruses, fungi and bacteria and disseminating them to several animals and humans. Salmonella are the most frequently detected [...] Read more.

Growing attention is being given to the European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) because of its synanthropic behaviour and its potential role in harbouring parasites, viruses, fungi and bacteria and disseminating them to several animals and humans. Salmonella are the most frequently detected zoonotic bacteria that hedgehogs could transmit through contaminating water and food sources with faeces. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and distribution of Salmonella spp. in wild hedgehogs in the Emilia-Romagna region (northern Italy). From 2019 to 2022, 212 European hedgehogs that died naturally were tested for Salmonella spp. through culture isolation. Positive samples were subjected to serological typing. A total of 82 samples tested positive for Salmonella spp., with the overall Bayesian posterior estimated prevalence ranging from 35% (95% CI: 23–47%) to a maximum of 45% (95% CI: 31–59%) during the years considered and with an overall prevalence calculated at 39% (95% CI: 33–45%). Salmonella enterica Enteritidis and Veneziana were the most prevalent detected serovars in 65% and 17% of the positive samples, respectively. Since 2021, S. Typhimurium, S. Typhimurium Monofasica, S. Zaiman, S. Hessarek, S. Muenster, S. Isangi serovars, S. enterica subsp. Diarizonae and S. enterica subsp. Houtenae have been detected. These findings show a high prevalence of Salmonella spp. in tested hedgehogs, suggesting an important role of this animal species in the epidemiology of potentially zoonotic serovars circulating in the Emilia-Romagna region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance of Zoonotic Pathogens Carried by Wildlife)

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15 pages, 3454 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Molecular Characterization of Rotavirus C from Rescued Sloth Bears, India: Evidence of Zooanthroponotic Transmission

by Yashpal Singh Malik, Mohd Ikram Ansari, Mathesh Karikalan, Shubhankar Sircar, Ilayaraja Selvaraj, Souvik Ghosh and Kalpana Singh

Pathogens 2023, 12(7), 934; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12070934 - 13 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1071

Abstract

The present study reports the detection and molecular characterisation of rotavirus C (RVC) in sloth bears (Melursus ursinus) rescued from urban areas in India. Based on an RVC VP6 gene-targeted diagnostic RT-PCR assay, 48.3% (42/87) of sloth bears tested positive for RVC infection. [...] Read more.

The present study reports the detection and molecular characterisation of rotavirus C (RVC) in sloth bears (Melursus ursinus) rescued from urban areas in India. Based on an RVC VP6 gene-targeted diagnostic RT-PCR assay, 48.3% (42/87) of sloth bears tested positive for RVC infection. The VP6, VP7, and NSP4 genes of three sloth bear RVC isolates (UP-SB19, 21, and 37) were further analysed. The VP6 genes of RVC UP-SB21 and 37 isolates were only 37% identical. The sequence identity, TM-score from structure alignment, and selection pressure (dN/dS) of VP6 UP-SB37 with pig and human RVCs isolates were (99.67%, 0.97, and 1.718) and (99.01%, 0.93, and 0.0340), respectively. However, VP6 UP-SB21 has an identity, TM-score, and dN/dS of (84.38%, 1.0, and 0.0648) and (99.63%, 1.0, and 3.7696) with human and pig RVC isolates, respectively. The VP7 genes from UP-SB19 and 37 RVC isolates were 79.98% identical and shared identity, TM-score, and dN/dS of 88.4%, 0.76, and 5.3210, along with 77.98%, 0.77, and 4.7483 with pig and human RVC isolates, respectively. The NSP4 gene of UP-SB37 RVC isolates has an identity, TM-score, and dN/dS of 98.95%, 0.76, and 0.2907, along with 83.12%, 0.34, and 0.2133 with pig and human RVC isolates, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis of the nucleotide sequences of the sloth bear RVC isolates assigned the isolate UP-SB37 to genotype G12, I2 for RVC structural genes VP7 and VP6, and E1 for NSP4 genes, respectively, while isolates UP-SB19 and UP-SB21 were classified as genotype G13 and GI7 based on the structural gene VP7, respectively. The study suggests that the RVCs circulating in the Indian sloth bear population are highly divergent and might have originated from pigs or humans, and further investigation focusing on the whole genome sequencing of the sloth bear RVC isolate may shed light on the virus origin and evolution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance of Zoonotic Pathogens Carried by Wildlife)

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15 pages, 3251 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prevalence of Enterococcus spp. and the Whole-Genome Characteristics of Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus faecalis Strains Isolated from Free-Living Birds in Poland

by Renata Kwit, Magdalena Zając, Aleksandra Śmiałowska-Węglińska, Magdalena Skarżyńska, Arkadiusz Bomba, Anna Lalak, Ewelina Skrzypiec, Dominika Wojdat, Weronika Koza, Emilia Mikos-Wojewoda, Paulina Pasim, Milena Skóra, Marcin Polak, Jarosław Wiącek and Dariusz Wasyl

Pathogens 2023, 12(6), 836; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12060836 - 16 Jun 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1552

Abstract

Enterococci as opportunistic bacteria are important for human health. Due to the prevalence and ease of acquisition and transfer of their genes, they are an excellent indicator of environmental contamination and the spread of antimicrobial resistance. The aim of the study was to [...] Read more.

Enterococci as opportunistic bacteria are important for human health. Due to the prevalence and ease of acquisition and transfer of their genes, they are an excellent indicator of environmental contamination and the spread of antimicrobial resistance. The aim of the study was to assess the prevalence of Enterococcus spp. in wild birds in Poland, determination of antimicrobial susceptibility and WGS analysis of Enterococcus (E.) faecium and E. faecalis. For this purpose, 138 samples from various species of free-living birds were tested, with 66.7% positive results. Fourteen species were detected, with E. faecalis being the most common, followed by E. casseliflavus and E. hirae. In antimicrobial susceptibility testing, 10.0% of E. faecalis and 50.0% of E. faecium showed resistance to one antimicrobial agent, in addition the MDR phenotype which was found in one E. faecium. The most common resistance phenotype included tetracycline and quinupristin/dalfopristin. The WGS analysis confirmed the significant advantage of the virulence gene diversity of E. faecalis strains over E. faecium. In addition, plasmid replicons were found in 42.0% of E. faecalis and 80.0% of E. faecium. The obtained results confirm free-living birds can be a reservoir of Enterococcus spp. with a considerable zoonotic potential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance of Zoonotic Pathogens Carried by Wildlife)

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16 pages, 2189 KiB

Open AccessArticle

White-Toothed Shrews (Genus Crocidura): Potential Reservoirs for Zoonotic Leptospira spp. and Arthropod-Borne Pathogens?

by Viola Haring, Jens Jacob, Bernd Walther, Martin Trost, Michael Stubbe, Katja Mertens-Scholz, Falk Melzer, Nelly Scuda, Michaela Gentil, Wolfdieter Sixl, Tanja Schäfer, Michal Stanko, Ronny Wolf, Martin Pfeffer, Rainer G. Ulrich and Anna Obiegala

Pathogens 2023, 12(6), 781; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12060781 - 30 May 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1404

Abstract

Three species of white-toothed shrews of the order Eulipotyphla are present in central Europe: the bicolored (Crocidura leucodon), greater (Crocidura russula) and lesser (Crocidura suaveolens) white-toothed shrews. Their precise distribution in Germany is ill-defined and little is [...] Read more.

Three species of white-toothed shrews of the order Eulipotyphla are present in central Europe: the bicolored (Crocidura leucodon), greater (Crocidura russula) and lesser (Crocidura suaveolens) white-toothed shrews. Their precise distribution in Germany is ill-defined and little is known about them as reservoirs for zoonotic pathogens (Leptospira spp., Coxiella burnetii, Brucella spp., Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Babesia spp., Neoehrlichia mikurensis and Bartonella spp.). We investigated 372 Crocidura spp. from Germany (n = 341), Austria (n = 18), Luxembourg (n = 2) and Slovakia (n = 11). West European hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) were added to compare the presence of pathogens in co-occurring insectivores. Crocidura russula were distributed mainly in western and C. suaveolens mainly in north-eastern Germany. Crocidura leucodon occurred in overlapping ranges with the other shrews. Leptospira spp. DNA was detected in 28/227 C. russula and 2/78 C. leucodon samples. Further characterization revealed that Leptospira kirschneri had a sequence type (ST) 100. Neoehrlichia mikurensis DNA was detected in spleen tissue from 2/213 C. russula samples. Hedgehogs carried DNA from L. kirschneri (ST 100), L. interrogans (ST 24), A. phagocytophilum and two Bartonella species. This study improves the knowledge of the current distribution of Crocidura shrews and identifies C. russula as carrier of Leptospira kirschneri. However, shrews seem to play little-to-no role in the circulation of the arthropod-borne pathogens investigated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance of Zoonotic Pathogens Carried by Wildlife)

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14 pages, 2611 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Characterisation of a Staphylococcus aureus Isolate Carrying Phage-Borne Enterotoxin E from a European Badger (Meles meles)

by Sindy Burgold-Voigt, Stefan Monecke, Anne Busch, Herbert Bocklisch, Sascha D. Braun, Celia Diezel, Helmut Hotzel, Elisabeth M. Liebler-Tenorio, Elke Müller, Martin Reinicke, Annett Reissig, Antje Ruppelt-Lorz and Ralf Ehricht

Pathogens 2023, 12(5), 704; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12050704 - 12 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1917

Abstract

Staphylococcus (S.) aureus colonizes up to 30% of all humans and can occasionally cause serious infections. It is not restricted to humans as it can also often be found in livestock and wildlife. Recent studies have shown that wildlife strains of [...] Read more.

Staphylococcus (S.) aureus colonizes up to 30% of all humans and can occasionally cause serious infections. It is not restricted to humans as it can also often be found in livestock and wildlife. Recent studies have shown that wildlife strains of S. aureus usually belong to other clonal complexes than human strains and that they might differ significantly with regard to the prevalence of genes encoding antimicrobial resistance properties and virulence factors. Here, we describe a strain of S. aureus isolated from a European badger (Meles meles). For molecular characterisation, DNA microarray-based technology was combined with various next-generation sequencing (NGS) methods. Bacteriophages from this isolate were induced with Mitomycin C and characterized in detail by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and NGS. The S. aureus isolate belonged to ST425 and had a novel spa repeat sequence (t20845). It did not carry any resistance genes. The uncommon enterotoxin gene see was detected in one of its three temperate bacteriophages. It was possible to demonstrate the induction of all three prophages, although only one of them was expected to be capable of excision based on its carriage of the excisionase gene xis. All three bacteriophages belonged to the family Siphoviridae. Minor differences in size and shape of their heads were noted in TEM images. The results highlight the ability of S. aureus to colonize or infect different host species successfully, which can be attributed to a variety of virulence factors on mobile genetic elements, such as bacteriophages. As shown in the strain described herein, temperate bacteriophages not only contribute to the fitness of their staphylococcal host by transferring virulence factors, but also increase mobility among themselves by sharing genes for excision and mobilization with other prophages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance of Zoonotic Pathogens Carried by Wildlife)

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16 pages, 4655 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Disease Progression and Serological Assay Performance in Heritage Breed Pigs following Brucella suis Experimental Challenge as a Model for Naturally Infected Feral Swine

by Vienna R. Brown, Ryan S. Miller, Courtney F. Bowden, Timothy J. Smyser, Nicholas A. Ledesma, Airn Hartwig, Paul Gordy, Aaron M. Anderson, Stephanie M. Porter, Kate Alexander, Zane Gouker, Thomas Gidlewski, Richard A. Bowen and Angela M. Bosco-Lauth

Pathogens 2023, 12(5), 638; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12050638 - 24 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1513

Abstract

Invasive feral swine (Sus scrofa) are one of the most important wildlife species for disease surveillance in the United States, serving as a reservoir for various diseases of concern for the health of humans and domestic animals. Brucella suis, the [...] Read more.

Invasive feral swine (Sus scrofa) are one of the most important wildlife species for disease surveillance in the United States, serving as a reservoir for various diseases of concern for the health of humans and domestic animals. Brucella suis, the causative agent of swine brucellosis, is one such pathogen carried and transmitted by feral swine. Serology assays are the preferred field diagnostic for B. suis infection, as whole blood can be readily collected and antibodies are highly stable. However, serological assays frequently have lower sensitivity and specificity, and few studies have validated serological assays for B. suis in feral swine. We conducted an experimental infection of Ossabaw Island Hogs (a breed re-domesticated from feral animals) as a disease-free proxy for feral swine to (1) improve understanding of bacterial dissemination and antibody response following B. suis infection and (2) evaluate potential changes in the performance of serological diagnostic assays over the course of infection. Animals were inoculated with B. suis and serially euthanized across a 16-week period, with samples collected at the time of euthanasia. The 8% card agglutination test performed best, whereas the fluorescence polarization assay demonstrated no capacity to differentiate true positive from true negative animals. From a disease surveillance perspective, using the 8% card agglutination test in parallel with either the buffered acidified plate antigen test or the Brucella abortus/suis complement fixation test provided the best performance with the highest probability of a positive assay result. Application of these combinations of diagnostic assays for B. suis surveillance among feral swine would improve understanding of spillover risks at the national level. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance of Zoonotic Pathogens Carried by Wildlife)

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7 pages, 964 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Migratory Wild Birds as Potential Long-Distance Transmitters of Toxoplasma gondii Infection

by Filippo Maria Dini, Giulia Graziosi, Caterina Lupini, Elena Catelli and Roberta Galuppi

Pathogens 2023, 12(3), 478; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12030478 - 18 Mar 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1471

Abstract

Toxoplasma gondii is a worldwide distributed zoonotic protozoan capable of infecting a wide range of mammals (including humans) and birds as intermediate hosts. Migratory wild birds, through interconnecting countries along their flyways, can play a role in the spatial spread of T. gondii [...] Read more.

Toxoplasma gondii is a worldwide distributed zoonotic protozoan capable of infecting a wide range of mammals (including humans) and birds as intermediate hosts. Migratory wild birds, through interconnecting countries along their flyways, can play a role in the spatial spread of T. gondii and could contribute to its sylvatic cycle. Additionally, hunted wild birds used for meat consumption could represent a further source of human infection. To determine the presence of T. gondii in wild birds, a total of 50 individuals belonging to the Anseriformes and Charadriiformes orders were sampled during the 2021–2022 hunting season in Northern Italy. Cardiac muscle samples of three Northern shovelers (Anas clypeata), two wild mallards (A. platyrhynchos), one Eurasian teal (A. crecca), and one Northern lapwing (Vanellus vanellus) were positive for the molecular detection of T. gondii based on a targeted amplification of the B1 gene. A 14% (7/50) overall positivity was observed in the sampled population. Results from this study suggest a moderate exposure of wild aquatic birds to T. gondii, highlighting the importance of a further characterization of T. gondii in its wildlife hosts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance of Zoonotic Pathogens Carried by Wildlife)

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18 pages, 1547 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Bacterial and Viral Pathogens with One Health Relevance in Invasive Raccoons (Procyon lotor, Linné 1758) in Southwest Germany

by Nico P. Reinhardt, Judith Köster, Astrid Thomas, Janosch Arnold, Robert Fux and Reinhard K. Straubinger

Pathogens 2023, 12(3), 389; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12030389 - 01 Mar 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2208

Abstract

In Europe, raccoons are invasive neozoons with their largest population in Germany. Globally, this mesocarnivore acts as a wildlife reservoir for many (non-)zoonotic (re-)emerging pathogens, but very little epidemiological data is available for southwest Germany. This exploratory study aimed to screen free-ranging raccoons [...] Read more.

In Europe, raccoons are invasive neozoons with their largest population in Germany. Globally, this mesocarnivore acts as a wildlife reservoir for many (non-)zoonotic (re-)emerging pathogens, but very little epidemiological data is available for southwest Germany. This exploratory study aimed to screen free-ranging raccoons in Baden-Wuerttemberg (BW, Germany) for the occurrence of selected pathogens with One Health relevance. Organ tissue and blood samples collected from 102 animals, obtained by hunters in 2019 and 2020, were subsequently analysed for two bacterial and four viral pathogens using a qPCR approach. Single samples were positive for the carnivore protoparvovirus-1 (7.8%, n = 8), canine distemper virus (6.9%, n = 7), pathogenic Leptospira spp. (3.9%, n = 4) and Anaplasma phagocytophilum (15.7%, n = 16). West Nile virus and influenza A virus were not detected. Due to their invasive behaviour and synanthropic habit, raccoons may increase the risk of infections for wildlife, domestic animals, zoo animals and humans by acting as a link between them. Therefore, further studies should be initiated to evaluate these risks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance of Zoonotic Pathogens Carried by Wildlife)

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15 pages, 1687 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of Pathogenic Leptospira kirschneri Serogroup Grippotyphosa in Water Voles (Arvicola terrestris) from Ruminant Pastures in Puy-de-Dôme, Central France

by Elena Harran, Adrien Pinot, Angeli Kodjo, Zouheira Djelouadji, Marine Le Gudayer, Soro Sionfoungo Daouda, Karine Groud, Virginie Lattard and Florence Ayral

Pathogens 2023, 12(2), 260; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12020260 - 06 Feb 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2282

Abstract

Rodents are the primary reservoirs for pathogenic Leptospira species, which cause leptospirosis. Among the key potential carriers are water voles, whose population outbreaks can consequently pose a major threat to human and animal health. We studied the prevalence, prominence, and epidemiology of pathogenic [...] Read more.

Rodents are the primary reservoirs for pathogenic Leptospira species, which cause leptospirosis. Among the key potential carriers are water voles, whose population outbreaks can consequently pose a major threat to human and animal health. We studied the prevalence, prominence, and epidemiology of pathogenic Leptospira species in water voles in central France. First, 46 voles were captured, and DNA was extracted from kidney, lung, liver, blood, and urine and tested for the presence of Leptospira using three molecular methods: PCR, O-antigen typing, and variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) typing. We also attempted to culture leptospires from kidney and urine samples. In addition, we investigated leptospiral antibodies in serum samples from 60 sheep using microscopic agglutination testing. These animals co-occurred with the voles, so we sought to assess their degree of exposure and involvement in pathogen dynamics. The overall prevalence of infection was 76.1% (CI_95% [61.2%, 87.4%]). The only strain found was L. kirschneri serogroup Grippotyphosa and a similar VNTR profile was acquired. Leptospires were successfully cultured from kidney and urine samples for four voles. Three sheep had low antibody titers against the Leptospira serogroup Grippotyphosa. Taken together, our results suggest the exclusive carriage of L. kirschneri serogroup Grippotyphosa among water voles in central France. Nevertheless, their ability to act as reservoir hosts that transmit the pathogen to co-occurring livestock remains unclear and merits further research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance of Zoonotic Pathogens Carried by Wildlife)

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18 pages, 963 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Risk Factors for Exposure of Wild Birds to West Nile Virus in A Gradient of Wildlife-Livestock Interaction

by Laia Casades-Martí, Rocío Holgado-Martín, Pilar Aguilera-Sepúlveda, Francisco Llorente, Elisa Pérez-Ramírez, Miguel Ángel Jiménez-Clavero and Francisco Ruiz-Fons

Pathogens 2023, 12(1), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12010083 - 03 Jan 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2504

Abstract

West Nile virus (WNV) transmission rate is shaped by the interaction between virus reservoirs and vectors, which may be maximized in farm environments. Based on this hypothesis, we screened for WNV in wild birds in three scenarios with decreasing gradient of interaction with [...] Read more.

West Nile virus (WNV) transmission rate is shaped by the interaction between virus reservoirs and vectors, which may be maximized in farm environments. Based on this hypothesis, we screened for WNV in wild birds in three scenarios with decreasing gradient of interaction with horses: (i) the farm (A₁); (ii) the neighborhood (A₂); and (iii) a wild area (A₃). We captured wild birds and analyzed their sera for WNV antibodies by blocking ELISA and micro-virus neutralization test. Flavivirus infections were tested with generic and specific PCR protocols. We parameterized linear mixed models with predictors (bird abundance and diversity, vector abundance, vector host abundance, and weather quantities) to identify Flavivirus spp. and WNV exposure risk factors. We detected a low rate of Flavivirus infections by PCR (0.8%) and 6.9% of the birds were seropositive by ELISA. Exposure to Flavivirus spp. was higher in A₁ (9%) than in A₂ and A₃ (5.6% and 5.8%, respectively). Bird diversity was the most relevant predictor of exposure risk and passerines dominated the on-farm bird community. Our results suggest that measures deterring the use of the farm by passerines should be implemented because the environmental favorability of continental Mediterranean environments for WNV is increasing and more outbreaks are expected. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance of Zoonotic Pathogens Carried by Wildlife)

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13 pages, 1905 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Serological Survey of Mosquito-Borne Arboviruses in Wild Birds from Important Migratory Hotspots in Romania

by Mircea Coroian, Cornelia Silaghi, Birke Andrea Tews, Emanuel Ștefan Baltag, Mihai Marinov, Vasile Alexe, Zsuzsa Kalmár, Horváth Cintia, Mihaela Sorina Lupșe and Andrei Daniel Mihalca

Pathogens 2022, 11(11), 1270; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11111270 - 31 Oct 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1934

Abstract

In the context of climate change, globalization, and enhanced human traveling, arboviruses continue to represent a threat to public health. West Nile and Usutu viruses are mosquito-borne viruses belonging to the Flaviviridae family (Flavivirus genus) and members of the Japanese encephalitis virus [...] Read more.

In the context of climate change, globalization, and enhanced human traveling, arboviruses continue to represent a threat to public health. West Nile and Usutu viruses are mosquito-borne viruses belonging to the Flaviviridae family (Flavivirus genus) and members of the Japanese encephalitis virus serocomplex. Included in the Togaviridae family (Alphavirus genus), the Sindbis virus is also vectored by mosquitoes. In the present study, we aimed to analyze the presence of antibodies concerning the abovementioned viruses in migratory and resident birds in the South-Eastern region of Romania, as avian hosts represent the main reservoir for human infection. Blood samples were collected from wild birds between May 2018 and October 2019 in nine locations from three counties. All the samples were serologically tested by ELISA and a serum neutralization test. Overall, a seroprevalence of 8.72% was registered for the West Nile virus, 2.71% for the Usutu virus, and 0% for the Sindbis virus. To our best knowledge, this is the first large-scale comprehensive study to assess the West Nile virus seropositivity in wild birds and the first serological confirmation of the Usutu virus in wild birds in Romania. Moreover, this is the only follow-up study reviewing the current seroprevalence of the Sindbis virus in Romania since 1975. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance of Zoonotic Pathogens Carried by Wildlife)

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7 pages, 286 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Serological Survey of Aujeszky’s Disease in Wild Boar from Southeastern France

by Younes Laidoudi, Bernard Davoust, Stéphanie Watier-Grillot, Aurélie Oger, Marie-Frédérique Le Potier and Céline Deblanc

Pathogens 2022, 11(10), 1107; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11101107 - 27 Sep 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1847

Abstract

Aujeszky’s disease virus (ADV), also known as pseudorabies virus, causes an important neurological infection with a major economic and health impact on animal husbandry. Here, we serologically screened muscle fluid from wild boar (Sus scrofa) for the presence of anti-ADV antibodies. [...] Read more.

Aujeszky’s disease virus (ADV), also known as pseudorabies virus, causes an important neurological infection with a major economic and health impact on animal husbandry. Here, we serologically screened muscle fluid from wild boar (Sus scrofa) for the presence of anti-ADV antibodies. Animals were caught during two hunting seasons (2019–2020 and 2021–2022) from three areas in southeastern France known to be endemic with wild boar populations. A total of 30.33% of the 399 tested animals scored positive for anti-glycoprotein B antibodies directed against ADV using a commercial competitive ELISA test. A significant effect (p-value < 0.0001) of the geographical location and animal age on ADV seroprevalence was observed. The results of this study confirmed the importance of wild boar in the epidemiology of ADV in southeastern France. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance of Zoonotic Pathogens Carried by Wildlife)

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15 pages, 1221 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Direct and Indirect Role of Migratory Birds in Spreading CCHFV and WNV: A Multidisciplinary Study on Three Stop-Over Islands in Italy

by Elisa Mancuso, Luciano Toma, Ilaria Pascucci, Silvio Gerardo d’Alessio, Valeria Marini, Michela Quaglia, Sara Riello, Andrea Ferri, Fernando Spina, Lorenzo Serra, Maria Goffredo and Federica Monaco

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1056; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091056 - 16 Sep 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2056

Abstract

The annual movements of migratory birds can contribute to the spread of African ticks and tick-borne pathogens of potential public health concern across Europe. The aim of the study was to investigate their role in the possible introduction of African ticks and tick-borne [...] Read more.

The annual movements of migratory birds can contribute to the spread of African ticks and tick-borne pathogens of potential public health concern across Europe. The aim of the study was to investigate their role in the possible introduction of African ticks and tick-borne pathogens into European countries during spring migration. A total of 2344 ticks were collected during three spring seasons from 1079 birds captured on three Italian stop-over islands during their northbound migration. Once identified, each tick was tested by RT-PCR for the presence of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHFV), West Nile (WNV), and Usutu (USUV) viruses. Moreover, carcasses of birds found dead were collected and tested for the possible presence of WNV and USUV. Results confirmed a higher contribution of trans-Saharan migrants compared to intra-Palearctic ones and the prevalence of African tick species in the sample. CCHFV was detected for the second time in Italy in a Hyalomma rufipes, and WNV was found in two ticks of the same genus, all carried by trans-Saharan birds. WNV lineage 1 was also found in the organs of a Garden warbler. These results confirm the role of migratory birds in carrying African ticks, as well as viruses of zoonotic importance, from Africa into Europe. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance of Zoonotic Pathogens Carried by Wildlife)

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10 pages, 4508 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Colistin Resistance Mechanism in Enterobacter hormaechei subsp. steigerwaltii Isolated from Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) in France

by Younes Laidoudi, Edgarthe Priscilla Ngaiganam, Jean-Lou Marié, Isabelle Pagnier, Jean-Marc Rolain, Seydina Mouhamadou Diene and Bernard Davoust

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1022; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091022 - 07 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1743

Abstract

Wild animals may act as efficient antimicrobial-resistance reservoirs and epidemiological links between humans, livestock, and natural environments. By using phenotypic and genotypic characterization, the present study highlighted the occurrence of an antimicrobial-resistant (i.e., amoxicillin, amoxicillin–clavulanic acid, cephalothin, and colistin) Enterobacter hormaechei subsp. steigerwaltii [...] Read more.

Wild animals may act as efficient antimicrobial-resistance reservoirs and epidemiological links between humans, livestock, and natural environments. By using phenotypic and genotypic characterization, the present study highlighted the occurrence of an antimicrobial-resistant (i.e., amoxicillin, amoxicillin–clavulanic acid, cephalothin, and colistin) Enterobacter hormaechei subsp. steigerwaltii strain in wild boar (Sus scrofa) from France. The molecular analysis conducted showed non-synonymous mutations in the pmrA/pmrB and phoQ/phoP operons and the phoP/Q regulator mgrB gene, leading to colistin resistance. The present data highlight the need for continuous monitoring of multidrug-resistant bacteria in wild animals to limit the spread of these threatening pathogens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance of Zoonotic Pathogens Carried by Wildlife)

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25 pages, 7078 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Epidemiology of Ebolaviruses from an Etiological Perspective

by Sahil Jain, Svetlana Khaiboullina, Ekaterina Martynova, Sergey Morzunov and Manoj Baranwal

Pathogens 2023, 12(2), 248; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12020248 - 03 Feb 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4720

Abstract

Since the inception of the ebolavirus in 1976, 32 outbreaks have resulted in nearly 15,350 deaths in more than ten countries of the African continent. In the last decade, the largest (2013–2016) and second largest (2018–2020) ebolavirus outbreaks have occurred in West Africa [...] Read more.

Since the inception of the ebolavirus in 1976, 32 outbreaks have resulted in nearly 15,350 deaths in more than ten countries of the African continent. In the last decade, the largest (2013–2016) and second largest (2018–2020) ebolavirus outbreaks have occurred in West Africa (mainly Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone) and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, respectively. The 2013–2016 outbreak indicated an alarming geographical spread of the virus and was the first to qualify as an epidemic. Hence, it is imperative to halt ebolavirus progression and develop effective countermeasures. Despite several research efforts, ebolaviruses’ natural hosts and secondary reservoirs still elude the scientific world. The primary source responsible for infecting the index case is also unknown for most outbreaks. In this review, we summarize the history of ebolavirus outbreaks with a focus on etiology, natural hosts, zoonotic reservoirs, and transmission mechanisms. We also discuss the reasons why the African continent is the most affected region and identify steps to contain this virus. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance of Zoonotic Pathogens Carried by Wildlife)

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12 pages, 693 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Do Urban Hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) Represent a Relevant Source of Zoonotic Diseases?

by Catarina Jota Baptista, Paula A. Oliveira, José M. Gonzalo-Orden and Fernanda Seixas

Pathogens 2023, 12(2), 268; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12020268 - 07 Feb 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2127

Abstract

Urban fauna is defined as animal species that can live in urban environments. Several species, including the western-European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus), have now been identified as part of this urban fauna, becoming permanent residents of parks and gardens in different cities [...] Read more.

Urban fauna is defined as animal species that can live in urban environments. Several species, including the western-European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus), have now been identified as part of this urban fauna, becoming permanent residents of parks and gardens in different cities across Europe. Due to the importance that this phenomenon represents for zoonotic disease surveillance, several authors have been conducting zoonotic agents’ surveys on hedgehog. The aim of this study is to compare zoonotic diseases’ prevalence in hedgehogs in urban environments with those from more rural areas. A systematic review with meta-analysis of twelve studied of zoonotic diseases’ (in urban and rural areas of Europe) was therefore conducted for this purpose. Fifteen different zoonoses have been assessed in urban environments and six in rural areas. Anaplasma phagocytophilum was the most prevalent zoonotic agent found in urban habitats (96%). Dermatophytosis shows statistically significant differences between locations (p-value < 0.001), with a higher prevalence in urban Poland (55%; n = 182). Our results suggest further research and a standardized monitoring of different hedgehog populations are essential to understanding the epidemiology of several zoonotic pathogens in different habitat types (urban, rural, natural, industrial, etc.) and preventing possible disease outbreaks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance of Zoonotic Pathogens Carried by Wildlife)

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8 pages, 1018 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

Prevalence of Pathogenic Leptospira spp. in Non-Volant Small Mammals of Hutan Lipur Sekayu, Terengganu, Malaysia

by Nur Juliani Shafie, Najma Syahmin Abdul Halim, Adedayo Michael Awoniyi, Mohamed Nor Zalipah, Shukor Md-Nor, Mohd Ulul Ilmie Ahmad Nazri and Federico Costa

Pathogens 2022, 11(11), 1300; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11111300 - 05 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1548

Abstract

Leptospirosis is an important zoonotic disease that is transmitted worldwide through infected small mammals such as rodents. In Malaysia, there is a paucity of information on the animal reservoirs that are responsible for leptospirosis transmission, with only a few studies focusing on leptospirosis [...] Read more.

Leptospirosis is an important zoonotic disease that is transmitted worldwide through infected small mammals such as rodents. In Malaysia, there is a paucity of information on the animal reservoirs that are responsible for leptospirosis transmission, with only a few studies focusing on leptospirosis risk in recreational areas. Therefore, in this study we characterized the species composition and the prevalence of pathogenic Leptospira spp. in non-volant small mammals of Hutan Lipur Sekayu, Terengganu. We performed ten trapping sessions totaling 3000 trappings between September 2019 and October 2020. Kidney samples from captured individuals were extracted for the PCR detection of pathogenic Leptospira spp. Overall, we captured 45 individuals from 8 species (1.56% successful trapping effort), with 9 individuals testing positive for pathogenic Leptospira, that is, a 20% (n = 9/45) prevalence rate. Rattus tiomanicus (n = 22) was the most dominant captured species and had the highest positive individual with pathogenic Leptospira (44.4%, n = 4/9). Despite the low successful trapping effort in this study, the results show the high diversity of non-volant small mammals in Hutan Lipur Sekayu, and that they could also maintain and transmit pathogenic Leptospira. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveillance of Zoonotic Pathogens Carried by Wildlife)

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