10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers

A special issue of Pathogens (ISSN 2076-0817).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2022) | Viewed by 88029

Special Issue Editor

Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
Interests: tumour virology; EBV; HPV; tumour immunology; cancer biology; immunotherapy; gene therapy
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In 2021, we will celebrate the tenth volume of the journal Pathogens (ISSN 2076-0817). It has been an interesting journey from the first edition of the journal in 2012—who would have thought that pathogens and infectious diseases would receive such global interest and relevance far beyond what was initially envisaged!

To date, Pathogens has published more than 2000 papers, and the journal website attracts more than 25,000 monthly page views. We would like to express our sincerest thanks to our readers, innumerable authors, anonymous peer reviewers, editors, and all the people working in some way for the journal who have made substantial contributions throughout the years. Without your support, we would never have made it.

To mark this significant milestone, a Special Issue entitled “10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers” is being launched. This Special Issue will include high-quality papers that fall under the broad scope of the Pathogens journal. Thus, we would like to invite you to contribute an article, review or communication for peer review and possible publication. We are particularly interested in topical issues within the scope of the journal that include but are not limited to:

  • Identification and characterization of pathogens;
  • Pathogen invasion and host defenses;
  • Transmission of pathogens;
  • Pathogen genetics and genomics;
  • Pathogen lifecycle;
  • Host adaptation;
  • Pathogen inactivation;
  • Innate and adaptive immune responses;
  • Molecular mechanisms of host–pathogen interaction;
  • Vaccine and therapeutic development;
  • Immune defense mechanisms;
  • Veterinary infections;
  • Cell-signalling effects;
  • Vectorology.

Prof. Dr. Lawrence S. Young
Guest Editor

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Published Papers (37 papers)

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16 pages, 2000 KiB  
Article
Lipidomics Analysis of Multilamellar Bodies Produced by Amoeba Acanthamoeba castellanii in Co-Culture with Klebsiella aerogenes
by Magdalena Anna Karaś, Anna Turska-Szewczuk, Iwona Komaniecka and Barbara Łotocka
Pathogens 2023, 12(3), 411; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12030411 - 03 Mar 2023
Viewed by 1364
Abstract
Multilamellar bodies (MLBs) are membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelles of lysosomal origin. In some protozoa, they were considered as lipid storage secretory organelles and feasible participants in cell-to-cell communication. However, for Acanthamoeba castellanii, similar vesicles were indicated only as possible transmission vectors of several [...] Read more.
Multilamellar bodies (MLBs) are membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelles of lysosomal origin. In some protozoa, they were considered as lipid storage secretory organelles and feasible participants in cell-to-cell communication. However, for Acanthamoeba castellanii, similar vesicles were indicated only as possible transmission vectors of several pathogenic bacteria without attributing them biological roles and activities. Since amoebae belonging to the genus Acanthamoeba are not only of environmental but also of clinical significance, it is of great importance to fully understand their physiology. Thus, determination of MLB lipid composition could partly address these questions. Because MLBs are secreted by amoebae as a result of bacteria digestion, the co-culture technique with the use of “edible” Klebsiella aerogenes was used for their production. Lipids obtained from The MLB fraction, previously purified from bacterial debris, were analyzed by high-performance thin-layer chromatography, gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry, and high-resolution mass spectrometry. Lipidomic analysis revealed that in MLBs, a very abundant lipid class was a non-phosphorous, polar glycerolipids, diacylglyceryl-O-(N,N,N)-trimethylhomoserine (DGTS). Since DGTSs are regarded as a source of nitrogen and fatty acids, MLBs can be considered as lipid storage organelles produced in stress conditions. Further, the identification of phytoceramides and possible new betaine derivatives indicates that MLBs might have a distinct bioactive potential. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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20 pages, 1266 KiB  
Article
Re-Emergence of Circulation of Seasonal Influenza during COVID-19 Pandemic in Russia and Receptor Specificity of New and Dominant Clade 3C.2a1b.2a.2 A(H3N2) Viruses in 2021–2022
by Natalia P. Kolosova, Tatiana N. Ilyicheva, Vasily V. Unguryan, Alexey V. Danilenko, Svetlana V. Svyatchenko, Galina S. Onhonova, Natalia I. Goncharova, Maksim N. Kosenko, Andrey S. Gudymo, Vasiliy Y. Marchenko, Alexander N. Shvalov, Ivan M. Susloparov, Tatiana V. Tregubchak, Elena V. Gavrilova, Rinat A. Maksyutov and Alexander B. Ryzhikov
Pathogens 2022, 11(11), 1388; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11111388 - 21 Nov 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1728
Abstract
The circulation of seasonal influenza in 2020–2021 around the world was drastically reduced after the start of the COVID-19 pandemic and the implementation of mitigation strategies. The influenza virus circulation reemerged in 2021–2022 with the global spread of the new genetic clade 3C.2a1b.2a.2 [...] Read more.
The circulation of seasonal influenza in 2020–2021 around the world was drastically reduced after the start of the COVID-19 pandemic and the implementation of mitigation strategies. The influenza virus circulation reemerged in 2021–2022 with the global spread of the new genetic clade 3C.2a1b.2a.2 of A(H3N2) viruses. The purpose of this study was to characterize influenza viruses in the 2021–2022 season in Russia and to analyze the receptor specificity properties of the 3C.2a1b.2a.2 A(H3N2) viruses. Clinical influenza samples were collected at the local Sanitary-and-Epidemiological Centers of Rospotrebnadzor. Whole genome sequencing was performed using NGS. The receptor specificity of hemagglutinin was evaluated using molecular modeling and bio-layer interferometry. Clinical samples from 854 cases of influenza A and B were studied; A(H3N2) viruses were in the majority of the samples. All genetically studied A(H3N2) viruses belonged to the new genetic clade 3C.2a1b.2a.2. Molecular modeling analysis suggested a higher affinity of hemagglutinin of 3C.2a1b.2a.2. A(H3N2) viruses to the α2,6 human receptor. In vitro analysis using a trisaccharide 6’-Sialyl-N-acetyllactosamine receptor analog did not resolve the differences in the receptor specificity of 3C.2a1b.2a.2 clade viruses from viruses belonging to the 3C.2a1b.2a.1 clade. Further investigation of the A(H3N2) viruses is required for the evaluation of their possible adaptive advantages. Constant monitoring and characterization of influenza are critical for epidemiological analysis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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12 pages, 1607 KiB  
Article
The Effect of Pegbovigrastim Injection on Phagocytic and Oxidative Burst Activities of Peripheral Blood Granulocytes and Monocytes in Calves Challenged with Mycoplasma bovis
by Katarzyna Dudek, Ewelina Szacawa, Magdalena Wasiak, Dariusz Bednarek and Michał Reichert
Pathogens 2022, 11(11), 1317; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11111317 - 09 Nov 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1236
Abstract
Mycoplasma bovis (M. bovis) is an important pathogen affecting cattle, causing various diseases including pneumonia which mainly occurring in calves. Control of M. bovis infections is difficult due to the lack of commercial vaccines in most parts of the world and [...] Read more.
Mycoplasma bovis (M. bovis) is an important pathogen affecting cattle, causing various diseases including pneumonia which mainly occurring in calves. Control of M. bovis infections is difficult due to the lack of commercial vaccines in most parts of the world and increasing trends of antimicrobial resistance in field isolates of the pathogen; therefore, it seems reasonable to look for new solutions for the prevention of the infection. Pegbovigrastim is a pegylated form of naturally occurring circulating cytokine in cattle that affects bovine leukocytes and some cell functions. Most studies on pegbovigrastim have focused on reducing the occurrence of mastitis and other diseases occurring during the periparturient period in cows, while this study attempts to use pegbovigrastim in the prevention of respiratory diseases in calves, which are largely caused by M. bovis. Based on previous observations on the immunostimulatory properties of pegbovigrastim in cattle, for the first time, the effect of its injection on the number and phagocytic and oxidative burst activities of peripheral blood granulocytes and monocytes in calves experimentally infected with M. bovis was investigated. Pegbovigrastim administration in the calves significantly stimulated an increase in peripheral blood granulocyte and monocyte counts and phagocytic activity of the cells, especially granulocytes, which was also generally expressed in the course of M. bovis infection. In response to pegbovigrastim administration, a general increase in the oxygen burst activity of the cells was observed. This effect was also shown despite ongoing infection with M. bovis which, taken together, may indicate a beneficial effect of pegbovigrastim injection on the immunity of the affected animals. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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12 pages, 299 KiB  
Article
Development, Optimisation and Validation of a Novel Multiplex Real-Time PCR Method for the Simultaneous Detection of Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis and Dientamoeba fragilis
by Isbene Sánchez, Alejandro Dashti, Pamela C. Köster, Begoña Bailo, Nuria González, Janire Allende, Christen Rune Stensvold, David Carmena and David González-Barrio
Pathogens 2022, 11(11), 1277; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11111277 - 31 Oct 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1544
Abstract
The enteric protozoan parasites Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis and Dientamoeba fragilis are—to various extents—contributors to the burden of gastrointestinal illness in high-income countries. Detection of these pathogens by microscopy examination is challenging because of the limited sensitivity and need for specific staining procedures. [...] Read more.
The enteric protozoan parasites Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis and Dientamoeba fragilis are—to various extents—contributors to the burden of gastrointestinal illness in high-income countries. Detection of these pathogens by microscopy examination is challenging because of the limited sensitivity and need for specific staining procedures. We developed and optimised a new multiplex real-time PCR assay for the simultaneous detection of Cryptosporidium spp., G. duodenalis and D. fragilis in clinical (stool) samples. The diagnostic performance of the assay was evaluated against a large panel of well-characterised DNA samples positive for Cryptosporidium spp. (n = 126), G. duodenalis (n = 132) and D. fragilis (n = 49). The specificity of the test was assessed against a DNA panel from other intestinal or phylogenetically related parasites (n = 105) and faecal DNA from individuals without clinical manifestations (n = 12). The assay exhibited a diagnostic sensitivity of 0.90–0.97 and a diagnostic specificity of 1. The limit of detection was estimated for Cryptosporidium (1 oocyst) and G. duodenalis (5 × 10−4 cysts). The method allowed the detection of four Cryptosporidium species (C. hominis, C. parvum, C. meleagridis and C. cuniculus) and five G. duodenalis assemblages (A–E) without cross-reacting with other parasites belonging to the phyla Amoebozoa, Apicomplexa, Euglenozoa, Microsporidia, Nematoda and Platyhelminthes. This newly developed multiplex real-time PCR assay represents a novel alternative for the rapid and accurate detection of Cryptosporidium, G. duodenalis and D. fragilis in clinical settings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
20 pages, 757 KiB  
Article
The Influence of the Degree of Thermal Inactivation of Probiotic Lactic Acid Bacteria and Their Postbiotics on Aggregation and Adhesion Inhibition of Selected Pathogens
by Marcelina Karbowiak, Michał Gałek, Aleksandra Szydłowska and Dorota Zielińska
Pathogens 2022, 11(11), 1260; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11111260 - 29 Oct 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2176
Abstract
The study aimed to evaluate the effect of thermal inactivation of potentially probiotic lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strains isolated from food on their ability to compete with pathogenic microorganisms. Five strains of LAB, previously isolated from food and characterized, one commercial reference strain [...] Read more.
The study aimed to evaluate the effect of thermal inactivation of potentially probiotic lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strains isolated from food on their ability to compete with pathogenic microorganisms. Five strains of LAB, previously isolated from food and characterized, one commercial reference strain of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum 299v, and two indicator strains of Staphylococcus aureus 25923 and Listeriamonocytogenes 15313 were used in the study. The experiment consisted in applying a stress factor (high temperature: 80 °C, at a different time: 5, 15, and 30 min) to the tested LAB cells to investigate the in vitro properties such as hydrophobicity abilities (against p-xylene and n-hexadecane), auto-aggregation, co-aggregation with pathogens, and inhibition of pathogens adhesion to the porcine gastric mucin. The bacterial strains showed various hydrophobicity to p-xylene (36–73%) and n-hexadecane (11–25%). The affinity for solvents expanded with increasing thermal inactivation time. All LAB isolates were able to auto-aggregate (ranging from 17 to 49%). Bacterial strains subjected to 5 and 15 min of thermal inactivation had the highest auto-aggregation ability in comparison to viable and heat-killed cells for 30 min. The LAB strains co-aggregated with pathogens to different degrees; among them, the highest scores of co-aggregation were observed for L. monocytogenes, reaching 27% (with 15 min of heat-killed LAB cells). All LAB strains reduced the adherence of pathogenic bacteria in the competition test, moreover, heat-killed cells (especially 15 min inactivated) were more efficient than viable cells. The properties of selected LAB strains as moderately heat-stressed forms analyzed in the study increased the prevention of colonization and elimination of pathogenic bacteria in the in vitro model of gastrointestinal tract. The thermal inactivation process may therefore preserve and modifies some characteristics of bacterial cells. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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10 pages, 1062 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum KAU007 against Low-Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus (H9N2)
by Irfan A. Rather, Majid Rasool Kamli, Jamal S. M. Sabir and Sajad Ali
Pathogens 2022, 11(11), 1246; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11111246 - 27 Oct 2022
Viewed by 1206
Abstract
Avian influenza A viruses (AIVs) pose a persistent threat to humans owing to their reassortment and antigenic drift properties. Among them is H9N2, a low-pathogenic avian influenza virus first discovered in the non-human host and later found infective to humans with huge pandemic [...] Read more.
Avian influenza A viruses (AIVs) pose a persistent threat to humans owing to their reassortment and antigenic drift properties. Among them is H9N2, a low-pathogenic avian influenza virus first discovered in the non-human host and later found infective to humans with huge pandemic potential. In recent years, antiviral resistance has become an increasing threat to public health. Additionally, vaccination against AIVs is becoming increasingly challenging with little success due to antigenic drift. This has resulted in a growing demand for products that can replace the presently in-use medications and the development of innovative antiviral therapies. In this study, we systematically investigate the antiviral potential of lactic acid bacteria against H9N2. Bacteria that produce lactic acid are commonly used in food processing. In addition, these bacteria are considered more affordable, effective, and safe “nutraceuticals” than other alternative medicines. We tested Lactiplantibacillus plantarum KAU007 against the low-pathogenic avian influenza virus (H9N2). As confirmed by the hemagglutination assay, KAU007 showed potent antiviral activity against H9N2 and vigorous antioxidant activity. The CFCS showed a dose-dependent reduction in the levels of IL-6 and IFN-γ. Thus, KAU007 might be considered a potential H9N2 target-based probiotic. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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10 pages, 2996 KiB  
Communication
High Rates of Detection and Molecular Characterization of Porcine Adenovirus Serotype 5 (Porcine mastadenovirus C) from Diarrheic Pigs
by Kerry Gainor, Yussaira Castillo Fortuna, Angeline Steny Alakkaparambil, Wendy González, Yashpal Singh Malik and Souvik Ghosh
Pathogens 2022, 11(10), 1210; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11101210 - 20 Oct 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1410
Abstract
Since the first report on isolation of porcine adenovirus serotype 5 (PAdV-5, species Porcine mastadenovirus C (PAdV-C)) from pigs with respiratory illness in Japan in 1987, PAdV-5 have been detected in a few fecal samples from healthy pigs and in some [...] Read more.
Since the first report on isolation of porcine adenovirus serotype 5 (PAdV-5, species Porcine mastadenovirus C (PAdV-C)) from pigs with respiratory illness in Japan in 1987, PAdV-5 have been detected in a few fecal samples from healthy pigs and in some environmental samples. To date, only a single PAdV-5 strain (isolate HNF-70 from 1987) has been analyzed for the complete genome. We report here high detection rates of PAdV-5 (25.74%, 26/101 fecal samples) in diarrheic pigs at 3 different farms in the Caribbean country of Dominican Republic. After a long gap, the complete deduced amino acid sequences of the DNA-dependent DNA polymerase (pol) and hexon of two PAdV-5 strains (GES7 and Z11) were determined, revealing >99% sequence identities between PAdV-5 strains (HNF-70, GES7 and Z11) detected in different parts of the world and during different time periods (1987, and 2020–2021). By phylogenetic analysis, the putative hexon and pol of HNF-70, GES7 and Z11 exhibited similar clustering patterns, with the PAdV-5 strains forming a tight cluster near ruminant AdVs, distinct from the species PAdV-A and -B. GES7 and Z11 retained the various conserved features present in the putative pol and major late promoter region of HNF-70. Considering the paucity of data on current epidemiological status and genetic diversity of PAdV in porcine populations, our findings warrant similar studies on PAdV-5 and other PAdVs in clinically ill and healthy pigs. To our knowledge, this is the first report on detection and molecular characterization of PAdV-5 (PAdV-C) from diarrheic pigs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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8 pages, 1397 KiB  
Article
Fluorescent Light Energy in the Management of Multi Drug Resistant Canine Pyoderma: A Prospective Exploratory Study
by Andrea Marchegiani, Alessandro Fruganti, Marilena Bazzano, Matteo Cerquetella, Fabrizio Dini and Andrea Spaterna
Pathogens 2022, 11(10), 1197; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11101197 - 18 Oct 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1837
Abstract
The increase in prevalence of staphylococcal antimicrobial resistance has been also associated with pyoderma in dogs, and prolonged antibiotic treatment, as often needed in severe cases of pyoderma, has been related to influencing possible development of multidrug resistance (MDR). Fluorescent light energy (FLE) [...] Read more.
The increase in prevalence of staphylococcal antimicrobial resistance has been also associated with pyoderma in dogs, and prolonged antibiotic treatment, as often needed in severe cases of pyoderma, has been related to influencing possible development of multidrug resistance (MDR). Fluorescent light energy (FLE) has been indicated to improve pyoderma lesions as adjunct therapy to systemic antibiotics. In the present study, we evaluated the effect of FLE on clinical signs of MDR canine deep pyoderma (CDP) and interdigital furunculosis (CIF) when administered as solely management. Sixteen client-owned dogs affected by CIF (five dogs) and CDP (eleven dogs) were scored using a dedicated scoring system and received a single FLE applications twice weekly, until clinical resolution was achieved. Mean time to achieve complete resolution was 5.20 ± 3.56 weeks (median 3 weeks) for CIF cases and 4.18 ± 1.47 weeks (median 4 weeks) for CDP ones. FLE shows promise as an aid to managing clinical signs while reducing reliance on antibiotics for MDR CDP and CIF. In this study, FLE was responsible for the decrease in lesion scores and resolution of MDR pyoderma infection without any adjunct therapy, having a potential useful role to play in antibiotic stewardship programs, efficiently promoting complete clinical resolution of MDR lesions while optimizing the use of antibiotics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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10 pages, 675 KiB  
Article
One-Year Surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 Virus in Natural and Drinking Water
by Daniel Salvador, Maria Filomena Caeiro, Célia Neto and Rui Neves Carneiro
Pathogens 2022, 11(10), 1133; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11101133 - 30 Sep 2022
Viewed by 1368
Abstract
Although the SARS-CoV-2 virus has been detected in wastewater from several countries, monitoring its presence in other water matrices is still limited. This study aimed to evaluate the presence of this virus in natural and drinking water over one year of monitoring (2021). [...] Read more.
Although the SARS-CoV-2 virus has been detected in wastewater from several countries, monitoring its presence in other water matrices is still limited. This study aimed to evaluate the presence of this virus in natural and drinking water over one year of monitoring (2021). A survey of viral RNA was carried out by RT-qPCR in concentrated samples of surface water, groundwater, and drinking water from different regions of Portugal. SARS-CoV-2 RNA—quantified in genomic copies per liter (gc/L) of sampled water—was not detected in groundwater, but was detected and quantified in samples of surface water (two out of 43; 8035 and 23,757 gc/L) and in drinking water (one out of 43 samples; 7463 gc/L). The study also detected and quantified Norovirus RNA, intending to confirm the use of this enteric virus to assess variations in fecal matter throughout the sampling campaign. The samples positive for SARS-CoV-2 RNA also had the highest concentrations of Norovirus RNA—including the drinking water sample, which proved negative for fecal enteric bacteria (FIB). These results indicate that, to protect human health, it is advisable to continue monitoring these viruses, and noroviruses as fecal indicators (FI) as well—especially in low-flow water bodies that receive wastewater. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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8 pages, 435 KiB  
Communication
No Evidence for the Presence of SARS-CoV-2 in Bank Voles and Other Rodents in Germany, 2020–2022
by Kerstin Wernike, Stephan Drewes, Calvin Mehl, Christin Hesse, Christian Imholt, Jens Jacob, Rainer G. Ulrich and Martin Beer
Pathogens 2022, 11(10), 1112; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11101112 - 28 Sep 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1596
Abstract
Rodentia is the most speciose mammalian order, found across the globe, with some species occurring in close proximity to humans. Furthermore, rodents are known hosts for a variety of zoonotic pathogens. Among other animal species, rodents came into focus when the severe acute [...] Read more.
Rodentia is the most speciose mammalian order, found across the globe, with some species occurring in close proximity to humans. Furthermore, rodents are known hosts for a variety of zoonotic pathogens. Among other animal species, rodents came into focus when the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spread through human populations across the globe, initially as laboratory animals to study the viral pathogenesis and to test countermeasures. Under experimental conditions, some rodent species including several cricetid species are susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection and a few of them can transmit the virus to conspecifics. To investigate whether SARS-CoV-2 is also spreading in wild rodent populations in Germany, we serologically tested samples of free-ranging bank voles (Myodes glareolus, n = 694), common voles (Microtus arvalis, n = 2), house mice (Mus musculus, n = 27), brown or Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus, n = 97) and Apodemus species (n = 8) for antibodies against the virus. The samples were collected from 2020 to 2022 in seven German federal states. All but one sample tested negative by a multispecies ELISA based on the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of SARS-CoV-2. The remaining sample, from a common vole collected in 2021, was within the inconclusive range of the RBD-ELISA, but this result could not be confirmed by a surrogate virus neutralization test as the sample gave a negative result in this test. These results indicate that SARS-CoV-2 has not become highly prevalent in wild rodent populations in Germany. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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12 pages, 1833 KiB  
Article
ShK-Domain-Containing Protein from a Parasitic Nematode Modulates Drosophila melanogaster Immunity
by Aklima K. Lima, Harpal Dhillon and Adler R. Dillman
Pathogens 2022, 11(10), 1094; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11101094 - 24 Sep 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2129
Abstract
A key component to understanding host–parasite interactions is the molecular crosstalk between host and parasite. Excreted/secreted products (ESPs) released by parasitic nematodes play an important role in parasitism. They can directly damage host tissue and modulate host defense. Steinernema carpocapsae, a well-studied parasite [...] Read more.
A key component to understanding host–parasite interactions is the molecular crosstalk between host and parasite. Excreted/secreted products (ESPs) released by parasitic nematodes play an important role in parasitism. They can directly damage host tissue and modulate host defense. Steinernema carpocapsae, a well-studied parasite of insects releases approximately 500 venom proteins as part of the infection process. Though the identity of these proteins is known, few have been studied in detail. One protein family present in the ESPs released by these nematodes is the ShK family. We studied the most abundant ShK-domain-containing protein in S. carpocapsae ESPs, Sc-ShK-1, to investigate its effects in a fruit fly model. We found that Sc-ShK-1 is toxic under high stress conditions and negatively affects the health of fruit flies. We have shown that Sc-ShK-1 contributes to host immunomodulation in bacterial co-infections resulting in increased mortality and microbial growth. This study provides an insight on ShK-domain-containing proteins from nematodes and suggests these proteins may play an important role in host–parasite interactions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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11 pages, 613 KiB  
Article
An Application of Real-Time PCR and CDC Protocol May Significantly Reduce the Incidence of Streptococcus agalactiae Infections among Neonates
by Tomasz Bogiel, Szymon Ziółkowski, Alicja Domian and Zuzanna Dobrzyńska
Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1064; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091064 - 19 Sep 2022
Viewed by 1796
Abstract
Streptococcus agalactiae is an important human opportunistic pathogen, especially infectious for pregnant women and neonates. This pathogen belongs to beta hemolytic Streptococcus spp. representatives and accounts for a significant part of early infections in newborns, including serious life-threatening infections. This research investigated the [...] Read more.
Streptococcus agalactiae is an important human opportunistic pathogen, especially infectious for pregnant women and neonates. This pathogen belongs to beta hemolytic Streptococcus spp. representatives and accounts for a significant part of early infections in newborns, including serious life-threatening infections. This research investigated the usefulness of Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) protocol for S. agalactiae DNA detection in 250 samples of recto-vaginal swabs collected from pregnant women (at 35-37 weeks of gestation) and pre-cultured overnight in liquid medium. With an application of the CDC protocol-based real-time PCR, the cfb gene was detected in 68 (27.2%) samples compared to 41 (16.4%) for the standard culture-based methodology. The applied molecular method presented high sensitivity (100.0%) and specificity (87.1%). Therefore, it allowed for more precise detection of S. agalactiae bacteria, compared to the reference diagnostic method, culture on solid media with the following strain identification. The increased sensitivity of GBS detection may result in a reduced number of infections in newborns and leads to more targeted antimicrobial prophylaxis therapy of GBS infections in pregnant women. In addition, the use of the molecular method allows for a significant reduction in the time needed to obtain a result for GBS detection, and interpretation of the results is relatively simple. Therefore, it enables a faster intervention in case of a necessity of an antibiotic therapy introduction in pregnant women whose GBS status is unknown at the time of delivery. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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14 pages, 1299 KiB  
Article
Canine Leptospirosis in a Northwestern Region of Colombia: Serological, Molecular and Epidemiological Factors
by Janeth Perez-Garcia, Fernando P. Monroy and Piedad Agudelo-Florez
Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1040; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091040 - 13 Sep 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1338
Abstract
Canine leptospirosis is a zoonosis of epidemiological importance. Dogs are recognized as primary reservoirs of Leptospira interrogans serogroup Canicola and a source of infection to the environment through urine. This study aimed to determine the presence of antibodies against Leptospira in canines from [...] Read more.
Canine leptospirosis is a zoonosis of epidemiological importance. Dogs are recognized as primary reservoirs of Leptospira interrogans serogroup Canicola and a source of infection to the environment through urine. This study aimed to determine the presence of antibodies against Leptospira in canines from 49 municipalities in the Department of Antioquia, Colombia. We performed a cross-sectional study of dogs included in a neutering control program. We collected 1335 sera samples, assayed by a microagglutination test (MAT), and performed PCR detection in 21 urine samples. We also surveyed 903 dog owners. We found a seroreactivity of 11.2% (150/1335) in Antioquia with titers ≥1:50. Municipalities with the highest number of cases were Belmira (46.1%), Turbo (34.5%), and Concepción (31.0%). L. santarosai was identified by phylogenetic analysis in one urine sample from the municipality of Granada. The most important factor associated with a positive result was the lack of vaccination against leptospirosis (PR 3.3, p ≤ 0.014). Environmental factors such as water presence and bare soil around the household were also associated with Leptospira seroreactivity in the Department of Antioquia. We reviewed a national epidemiological surveillance database for human cases in those municipalities. We found a correlation between the high number of cases in canines and humans, especially in the Uraba. Serological and molecular results showed the circulation of Leptospira. Future public health efforts in the municipalities with the highest numbers of seroreactivity should be directed towards vaccination to prevent animal disease and decrease the probability of transmission of Leptospira. Dogs actively participate in the Leptospira cycle in Antioquia and encourage the implementation of vaccination protocols and coverage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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14 pages, 354 KiB  
Communication
Relationship between Biofilm-Formation, Phenotypic Virulence Factors and Antibiotic Resistance in Environmental Pseudomonas aeruginosa
by Payam Behzadi, Márió Gajdács, Péter Pallós, Boglárka Ónodi, Anette Stájer, Danica Matusovits, Krisztina Kárpáti, Katalin Burián, Basem Battah, Marco Ferrari, Carlo Doria, Gianfilippo Caggiari, Ameer Khusro, Stefania Zanetti and Matthew Gavino Donadu
Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1015; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091015 - 05 Sep 2022
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2484
Abstract
The formation of a protective biofilm by Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) is one of the hallmarks of their survival both in vivo and in harsh environmental conditions, thus, biofilm-eradication has relevance from therapeutic perspectives and for infection control. The aim of our study was [...] Read more.
The formation of a protective biofilm by Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) is one of the hallmarks of their survival both in vivo and in harsh environmental conditions, thus, biofilm-eradication has relevance from therapeutic perspectives and for infection control. The aim of our study was to investigate the possible relationship between antibiotic resistance, biofilm-forming capacity and virulence factors in n = 166 PA isolates of environmental origin. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing and the phenotypic detection of resistance determinants were carried out using standard protocols. The biofilm-forming capacity of PA was tested using a standardized crystal violet microtiter plate-based method. Motility (swimming, swarming, and twitching) and siderophore production of the isolates were also assessed. Resistance rates were highest for ciprofloxacin (46.98%), levofloxacin (45.18%), ceftazidime (31.92%) and cefepime (30.12%); 19.28% of isolates met the criteria to be classified as multidrug-resistant (MDR). Efflux pump overexpression, AmpC overexpression, and modified Hodge-test positivity were noted in 28.31%, 18.07% and 3.61%, respectively. 22.89% of isolates were weak/non-biofilm producers, while 27.71% and 49.40% were moderate and strong biofilm producers, respectively. Based on MDR status of the isolates, no significant differences in biofilm-production were shown among environmental PA (non-MDR OD570 [mean ± SD]: 0.416 ± 0.167 vs. MDR OD570: 0.399 ± 0.192; p > 0.05). No significant association was observed between either motility types in the context of drug resistance or biofilm-forming capacity (p > 0.05). 83.13% of isolates tested were positive for siderophore production. The importance of PA as a pathogen in chronic and healthcare-associated infections has been described extensively, while there is increasing awareness of PA as an environmental agent in agriculture and aquaculture. Additional studies in this field would be an important undertaking to understand the interrelated nature of biofilm production and antimicrobial resistance, as these insights may become relevant bases for developing novel therapeutics and eradication strategies against PA. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
11 pages, 1868 KiB  
Article
Molecular Insights into Innate Immune Response in Captive Koala Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells Co-Infected with Multiple Koala Retrovirus Subtypes
by Mohammad Enamul Hoque Kayesh, Md Abul Hashem, Fumie Maetani, Atsushi Goto, Noriko Nagata, Aki Kasori, Tetsuya Imanishi and Kyoko Tsukiyama-Kohara
Pathogens 2022, 11(8), 911; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11080911 - 14 Aug 2022
Viewed by 1491
Abstract
Koala retrovirus (KoRV) exists in both endogenous and exogenous forms and has appeared as a major threat to koala health and conservation. Currently, there are twelve identified KoRV subtypes: an endogenous subtype (KoRV-A) and eleven exogenous subtypes (KoRV-B to -I, KoRV-K, -L, and [...] Read more.
Koala retrovirus (KoRV) exists in both endogenous and exogenous forms and has appeared as a major threat to koala health and conservation. Currently, there are twelve identified KoRV subtypes: an endogenous subtype (KoRV-A) and eleven exogenous subtypes (KoRV-B to -I, KoRV-K, -L, and -M). However, information about subtype-related immune responses in koalas against multiple KoRV infections is limited. In this study, we investigated KoRV-subtype (A, B, C, D, and F)-related immunophenotypic changes, including CD4, CD8b, IFN-γ, IL-6, and IL-10 mRNA expression, in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) obtained from captive koalas (n = 37) infected with multiple KoRV subtypes (KoRV-A to F) reared in seven Japanese zoos. Based on KoRV subtype infection profiles, no significant difference in CD4 and CD8b mRNA expression was observed in the study populations. Based on the different KoRV subtype infections, we found that the IFN-γ mRNA expression in koala PMBCs differs insignificantly (p = 0.0534). In addition, IL-6 and IL-10 mRNA expression also did not vary significantly in koala PBMCs based on KoRV subtype differences. We also investigated the Toll-like receptors (TLRs) response, including TLR2–10, and TLR13 mRNA in koala PBMCs infected with multiple KoRV subtypes. Significant differential expression of TLR5, 7, 9, 10, and 13 mRNA was observed in the PBMCs from koalas infected with different KoRV subtypes. Therefore, based on the findings of this study, it is assumed that co-infection of multiple KoRV subtypes might modify the host innate immune response, including IFN-γ and TLRs responses. However, to have a more clear understanding regarding the effect of multiple KoRV subtypes on host cytokines and TLR response and pathogenesis, further large-scale studies including the koalas negative for KoRV and koalas infected with other KoRV subtypes (KoRV-A to -I, KoRV-K, -L and -M) are required. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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13 pages, 1692 KiB  
Article
The N-terminal Subunit of the Porcine Deltacoronavirus Spike Recombinant Protein (S1) Does Not Serologically Cross-react with Other Porcine Coronaviruses
by Lu Yen, Ronaldo Magtoto, Juan Carlos Mora-Díaz, Jose Antonio Carrillo-Ávila, Jianqiang Zhang, Ting-Yu Cheng, Precy Magtoto, Rahul K. Nelli, David H. Baum, Jeffrey J. Zimmerman and Luis G. Giménez-Lirola
Pathogens 2022, 11(8), 910; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11080910 - 13 Aug 2022
Viewed by 1343
Abstract
Porcine deltacoronavirus (PDCoV), belonging to family Coronaviridae and genus Deltacoronavirus, is a major enteric pathogen in swine. Accurate PDCoV diagnosis relying on laboratory testing and antibody detection is an important approach. This study evaluated the potential of the receptor-binding subunit of the [...] Read more.
Porcine deltacoronavirus (PDCoV), belonging to family Coronaviridae and genus Deltacoronavirus, is a major enteric pathogen in swine. Accurate PDCoV diagnosis relying on laboratory testing and antibody detection is an important approach. This study evaluated the potential of the receptor-binding subunit of the PDCoV spike protein (S1), generated using a mammalian expression system, for specific antibody detection via indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Serum samples were collected at day post-inoculation (DPI) −7 to 42, from pigs (n = 83) experimentally inoculated with different porcine coronaviruses (PorCoV). The diagnostic sensitivity of the PDCoV S1-based ELISA was evaluated using serum samples (n = 72) from PDCoV-inoculated animals. The diagnostic specificity and potential cross-reactivity of the assay was evaluated on PorCoV-negative samples (n = 345) and samples collected from pigs experimentally inoculated with other PorCoVs (n = 472). The overall diagnostic performance, time of detection, and detection rate over time varied across different S/P cut-offs, estimated by Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve analysis. The higher detection rate in the PDCoV group was observed after DPI 21. An S/P cut-off of 0.25 provided 100% specificity with no serological cross-reactivity against other PorCoV. These results support the use of S1 protein-based ELISA for accurate detection of PDCoV infections, transference of maternal antibodies, or active surveillance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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13 pages, 5277 KiB  
Article
Lasiodiplodia fici sp. nov., Causing Leaf Spot on Ficus altissima in China
by GuiYan Xia, Ishara S. Manawasinghe, Alan J. L. Phillips, ChunPing You, Ruvishika S. Jayawardena, Mei Luo and Kevin D. Hyde
Pathogens 2022, 11(8), 840; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11080840 - 27 Jul 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1747
Abstract
High temperatures and the seasonality in tropical ecosystems favours plant pathogens, which result in many fungal diseases. Among these, diseases caused by Botryosphaeriaceae species are prominent as dieback, canker and leaf spots. In this research, we isolated one leaf-spot-causing Botryosphaeriaceae species from Ficus [...] Read more.
High temperatures and the seasonality in tropical ecosystems favours plant pathogens, which result in many fungal diseases. Among these, diseases caused by Botryosphaeriaceae species are prominent as dieback, canker and leaf spots. In this research, we isolated one leaf-spot-causing Botryosphaeriaceae species from Ficus altissima leaves, which were collected in Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China. Isolation and identification of the pathogen were based on morphological and molecular aspects. Based on multigene phylogenetic analysis of combined internal transcribed spacer (ITS), translation elongation factor 1-α gene (tef1) and beta-tubulin gene (tub2), the fungus associated with leaf spots on F. altissima is described as Lasiodiplodia fici, a novel species. Pathogenicity assays were conducted by inoculating the fungus onto detached shoots and plants under controlled environmental conditions. The results revealed that the L. fici isolates can infect the plant tissues under stress conditions by developing disease symptoms on detached shoots within three days. However, when it was inoculated onto the leaves of the host and grown in natural conditions, the progression of the disease was slow. The putative pathogen was re-isolated, and Koch’s assumptions were satisfied. This is the first report of Lasiodiplodia species causing disease on Ficus altissima. Results from the present study will provide additional knowledge on fungal pathogens associated with forest and ornamental plant species. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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15 pages, 911 KiB  
Article
Antifungal Activity of Select Essential Oils against Candida auris and Their Interactions with Antifungal Drugs
by Ryan A. Parker, Kyle T. Gabriel, Kayla D. Graham, Bethany K. Butts and Christopher T. Cornelison
Pathogens 2022, 11(8), 821; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11080821 - 22 Jul 2022
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3536
Abstract
Candida auris is an emerging fungal pathogen that commonly causes nosocomial blood infections in the immunocompromised. Several factors make this pathogen a global threat, including its misidentification as closely related species, its ability to survive for weeks on fomites, and its resistance to [...] Read more.
Candida auris is an emerging fungal pathogen that commonly causes nosocomial blood infections in the immunocompromised. Several factors make this pathogen a global threat, including its misidentification as closely related species, its ability to survive for weeks on fomites, and its resistance to commonly prescribed antifungal drugs, sometimes to all three classes of systemic antifungal drugs. These factors demonstrate a need for the development of novel therapeutic approaches to combat this pathogen. In the present study, the antifungal activities of 21 essential oils were tested against C. auris. Several essential oils were observed to inhibit the growth and kill C. auris, Candida lusitaniae, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae when in direct contact and at concentrations considered safe for topical use. The most effective essential oils were those extracted from lemongrass, clove bud, and cinnamon bark. These essential oils also elicited antifungal activity in gaseous form. The efficacies of formulations comprised of these three essential oils in combination with fluconazole, amphotericin B, flucytosine, and micafungin were explored. While synergism was neither observed with cinnamon bark oil nor any of the antifungal drugs, lemongrass oil displayed synergistic, additive, and indifferent interactions with select drugs. Formulations of clove bud oil with amphotericin B resulted in antagonistic interactions but displayed synergistic interactions with fluconazole and flucytosine. These essential oils and their combinations with antifungal drugs may provide useful options for surface disinfection, skin sanitization, and possibly even the treatment of Candida infections. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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12 pages, 1923 KiB  
Article
Variability among the Isolates of Broad Bean Mottle Virus and Encapsidation of Host RNAs
by Nipin Shrestha, Melvin R. Duvall and Jozef J. Bujarski
Pathogens 2022, 11(7), 817; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11070817 - 21 Jul 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1417
Abstract
Broad bean mottle bromovirus infects legume plants and is transmissible by insects. Several broad bean mottle virus (BBMV) isolates have been identified, including one in England (isolate Ba) and five in the Mediterranean countries: Libya (LyV), Morocco (MV), Syria (SV), Sudan (TU) and [...] Read more.
Broad bean mottle bromovirus infects legume plants and is transmissible by insects. Several broad bean mottle virus (BBMV) isolates have been identified, including one in England (isolate Ba) and five in the Mediterranean countries: Libya (LyV), Morocco (MV), Syria (SV), Sudan (TU) and Tunisia (TV). Previously, we analyzed the nucleotide sequence of the Ba RNA and here we report on and compare it with another five Mediterranean variants. The RNA segments in the latter ones were extensively homologous, with some SNPs, single nucleotide deletions and insertions, while the number of mutations was higher in isolate Ba. Both the 5′ and 3′ untranslated terminal regions (UTRs) among the corresponding RNAs are highly conserved, reflecting their functionality in virus replication. The AUG initiation codons are within suboptimal contexts, possibly to adjust/regulate translation. The proteins 1a, 2a, 3a and coat protein (CP) are almost identical among the five isolates, but in Ba they have more amino acid (aa) substitutions. Phylogenetic analysis revealed the isolates from Morocco and Syria clustering with the isolate from England, while the variants from Libya, Tunisia and Sudan created a different clade. The BBMV isolates encapsidate a high content of host (ribosomal and messenger) RNAs. Our studies present BBMV as a useful model for bromoviruses infecting legumes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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17 pages, 1464 KiB  
Article
Terpinen-4-ol, the Main Bioactive Component of Tea Tree Oil, as an Innovative Antimicrobial Agent against Legionella pneumophila
by Francesca Mondello, Stefano Fontana, Maria Scaturro, Antonietta Girolamo, Marisa Colone, Annarita Stringaro, Maura Di Vito and Maria Luisa Ricci
Pathogens 2022, 11(6), 682; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11060682 - 14 Jun 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1789
Abstract
Legionella pneumophila (Lp), responsible for a severe pneumonia called Legionnaires’ disease, represents an important health burden in Europe. Prevention and control of Lp contamination in warm water systems is still a great challenge often due to the failure in disinfection procedures. [...] Read more.
Legionella pneumophila (Lp), responsible for a severe pneumonia called Legionnaires’ disease, represents an important health burden in Europe. Prevention and control of Lp contamination in warm water systems is still a great challenge often due to the failure in disinfection procedures. The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro activity of Terpinen-4-ol (T-4-ol) as potential agent for Lp control, in comparison with the essential oil of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) (TTO. Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) of T-4-ol were determined by broth micro-dilution and a micro-atmosphere diffusion method to investigate the anti-Lp effects of T-4-ol and TTO vapors. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) was adopted to highlight the morphological changes and Lp damage following T-4-ol and TTO treatments. The greatest antimicrobial activity against Lp was shown by T-4-ol with a MIC range of 0.06–0.125% v/v and MBC range of 0.25–0.5% v/v. The TTO and T-4-ol MIC and MBC decreased with increasing temperature (36 °C to 45 ± 1 °C), and temperature also significantly influenced the efficacy of TTO and T-4-ol vapors. The time-killing assay showed an exponential trend of T-4-ol bactericidal activity at 0.5% v/v against Lp. SEM observations revealed a concentration- and temperature- dependent effect of T-4-ol and TTO on cell surface morphology with alterations. These findings suggest that T-4-ol is active against Lp and further studies may address the potential effectiveness of T-4-ol for control of water systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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14 pages, 3509 KiB  
Article
Extracellular Vesicles from Naegleria fowleri Induce IL-8 Response in THP-1 Macrophage
by Sakaorat Lertjuthaporn, Jinjuta Somkird, Kittima Lekmanee, Anyapat Atipimonpat, Kasama Sukapirom, Hathai Sawasdipokin, Supathra Tiewcharoen, Kovit Pattanapanyasat and Ladawan Khowawisetsut
Pathogens 2022, 11(6), 632; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11060632 - 30 May 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2329
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) released from pathogenic protozoans play crucial roles in host–parasite communication and disease pathogenesis. Naegleria fowleri is a free-living protozoan causing primary amoebic meningoencephalitis, a fatal disease in the central nervous system. This study aims to explore the roles of N. [...] Read more.
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) released from pathogenic protozoans play crucial roles in host–parasite communication and disease pathogenesis. Naegleria fowleri is a free-living protozoan causing primary amoebic meningoencephalitis, a fatal disease in the central nervous system. This study aims to explore the roles of N. fowleri-derived EVs (Nf-EVs) in host–pathogen interactions using the THP-1 cell line as a model. The Nf-EVs were isolated from the N. fowleri trophozoite culture supernatant using sequential centrifugation and characterized by nanoparticle tracking analysis and transmission electron microscopy. The functional roles of Nf-EVs in the apoptosis and immune response induction of THP-1 monocytes and macrophages were examined by flow cytometry, quantitative PCR, and ELISA. Results showed that Nf-EVs displayed vesicles with bilayer membrane structure approximately 130–170 nm in diameter. The Nf-EVs can be internalized by macrophages and induce macrophage responses by induction of the expression of costimulatory molecules CD80, CD86, HLA-DR, and CD169 and the production of cytokine IL-8. However, Nf-EVs did not affect the apoptosis of macrophages. These findings illustrate the potential role of Nf-EVs in mediating the host immune cell activation and disease pathogenesis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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15 pages, 20901 KiB  
Article
Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Microbiota in Bacterial Vaginosis Using Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization
by Alexander Swidsinski, Alexander Guschin, Lorenzo Corsini, Vera Loening-Baucke, Lenka Podpera Tisakova, Sonja Swidsinski, Jack D. Sobel and Yvonne Dörffel
Pathogens 2022, 11(4), 456; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11040456 - 11 Apr 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2141
Abstract
Background: Testing of antibiotic resistance of intact vaginal microbiota in pure culture is not feasible. METHODS: Metronidazole, antiseptic octenisept®, antimycotic ciclopirox, bacterial probiotic Lactobacillus crispatus, yeast probiotic Saccharomyces boulardii, Gardnerella-phage-endolysin named phagolysin and phagolysin in combination with probiotics were [...] Read more.
Background: Testing of antibiotic resistance of intact vaginal microbiota in pure culture is not feasible. METHODS: Metronidazole, antiseptic octenisept®, antimycotic ciclopirox, bacterial probiotic Lactobacillus crispatus, yeast probiotic Saccharomyces boulardii, Gardnerella-phage-endolysin named phagolysin and phagolysin in combination with probiotics were tested for bacteriolytic activity. Included were vaginal swabs from 38 random women with Amsel-confirmed bacterial vaginosis (BV). Test aliquots were incubated by 37° for 2 and 24 h. Gardnerella, low G+C, Atopobium, lactobacilli, Lactobacillus iners and crispatus, Prevotella-Bacteroides, and Gammaproteobacteria microbial groups were quantified using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). Results: The probiotic strain Lactobacillus crispatus demonstrated the weakest bacteriolytical effects, followed by metronidazole. Both had no impact on Gardnerella species, instead lysing Prevotella-Bacteroides, Enterobacteriaceae (by L.crispatus) or LGC, Atopobium and Prevotella-Bacteroides (by metronidazole) groups of the microbiota. Cytolytic activity on Gardnerella was highly pronounced and increased from octenisept to ciclopirox, phagolysin, phagolysin with L.crispatus, being best in the combination of phagolysin with S.boulardii. Universally active ciclopirox and octenisept® suppressed nearly all microbial groups including those which are regarded as beneficial. Phagolysin had no effect on naturally occurring Lactobacillus crispatus. Conclusions: FISH susceptibility testing allows unique efficacy evaluation of individually adjusted topical therapy without microbial isolation facilitating optimal therapy choice. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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17 pages, 1578 KiB  
Article
Management of Pyrenophora teres f. teres, the Causal Agent of Net Form Net Blotch of Barley, in A Two-Year Field Experiment in Central Italy
by Francesco Tini, Lorenzo Covarelli, Giacomo Ricci, Emilio Balducci, Maurizio Orfei and Giovanni Beccari
Pathogens 2022, 11(3), 291; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11030291 - 24 Feb 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3133
Abstract
Pyrenophora teres is the causal agent of barley net blotch (NB), a disease that can be found in two different forms: net form (NFNB), caused by P. teres f. teres, and spot form (SFNB), caused by P. teres f. maculata. A [...] Read more.
Pyrenophora teres is the causal agent of barley net blotch (NB), a disease that can be found in two different forms: net form (NFNB), caused by P. teres f. teres, and spot form (SFNB), caused by P. teres f. maculata. A two-year field experiment was carried out to evaluate the response to NB of six different barley cultivars for malt or feed/food production. In addition, the efficacy of several recently developed foliar fungicides with different modes of action (SDHI, DMI, and QoI) towards the disease was examined. After NB leaf symptom evaluation, the identification of P. teres forms was performed. Grain yield was determined, and pathogen biomass was quantified in the grain by qPCR. In the two experimental years characterized by different climatic conditions, only P. teres f. teres was detected. The tested cultivars showed different levels of NFNB susceptibility. In particular, the two-row cultivars for malt production showed the highest disease incidence. All applied fungicides exhibited a high efficacy in reducing disease symptoms on leaves and pathogen accumulation in grains. In fact, high levels of fungal biomass were detected only in the grain of the untreated malting barley cultivars. For some cultivars, grain yield was positively influenced by the application of fungicides. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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11 pages, 281 KiB  
Article
Seasonal Patterns of Enteric Pathogens in Colombian Indigenous People—A More Pronounced Effect on Bacteria Than on Parasites
by Simone Kann, Maria Hartmann, Juliane Alker, Jessica Hansen, Juan Carlos Dib, Andrés Aristizabal, Gustavo Concha, Ulrich Schotte, Lothar Kreienbrock and Hagen Frickmann
Pathogens 2022, 11(2), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11020214 - 06 Feb 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1729
Abstract
Enteric pathogens, which are frequently food- and waterborne transmitted, are highly abundant in Indigenous people living in remote rural areas of Colombia. As the frequency of gastroenteritis in the tropics shows seasonal differences, we analyzed variations of pathogen patterns in the stool samples [...] Read more.
Enteric pathogens, which are frequently food- and waterborne transmitted, are highly abundant in Indigenous people living in remote rural areas of Colombia. As the frequency of gastroenteritis in the tropics shows seasonal differences, we analyzed variations of pathogen patterns in the stool samples of a Colombian Indigenous tribe called Wiwa during the dry (n = 105) and the rainy (n = 227) season, applying real-time PCR from stool samples and statistical analysis based on a multi-variable model. Focusing on bacterial pathogens, increased detection rates could be confirmed for enteropathogenic, enterotoxigenic and enteroaggregative Escherichia coli with a tendency for an increase in Campylobacter jejuni detections during the rainy season, while there was no seasonal effect on the carriage of Tropheryma whipplei. Salmonellae were recorded during the rainy season only. A differentiated pattern was seen for the assessed parasites. Entamoeba histolytica, Necator americanus and Trichuris trichiura were increasingly detected during the rainy season, but not Ascaris lumbricoides, Giardia duodenalis, Hymenolepis nana, Strongyloides stercoralis, and Taenia solium, respectively. Increased detection rates during the dry season were not recorded. Negative associations were found for Campylobacter jejuni and Giardia duodenalis with age and for Tropheryma whipplei with the body mass index, respectively. Positive associations of enteropathogenic Escherichia coli and Taenia solium detections were observed with age. In conclusion, facilitating effects of the tropical rainy season were more pronounced on bacterial enteric pathogens compared to enteropathogenic parasites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
8 pages, 1152 KiB  
Communication
The Coxsackievirus and Adenovirus Receptor Has a Short Half-Life in Epithelial Cells
by Poornima Kotha Lakshmi Narayan, James M. Readler, Mahmoud S. Alghamri, Trisha L. Brockman, Ran Yan, Priyanka Sharma, Vladislav Snitsarev, Katherine J. D. A. Excoffon and Abimbola O. Kolawole
Pathogens 2022, 11(2), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11020173 - 27 Jan 2022
Viewed by 2054
Abstract
The coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor (CAR) is an essential cellular protein that is involved in cell adhesion, cell signaling, and viral infection. The 8-exon encoded isoform (CAREx8) resides at the apical surface of polarized epithelia, where it is accessible as a [...] Read more.
The coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor (CAR) is an essential cellular protein that is involved in cell adhesion, cell signaling, and viral infection. The 8-exon encoded isoform (CAREx8) resides at the apical surface of polarized epithelia, where it is accessible as a receptor for adenovirus entering the airway lumen. Given its pivotal role in viral infection, it is a target for antiviral strategies. To understand the regulation of CAREx8 and determine the feasibility of receptor downregulation, the half-life of total and apical localized CAREx8 was determined and correlated with adenovirus transduction. Total and apical CAREx8 has a relatively short half-life of approximately 2 h. The half-life of apical CAREx8 correlates well with adenovirus transduction. These results suggest that antiviral strategies that aim to degrade the primary receptor for apical adenovirus infection will be effective within a relatively short time frame after application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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20 pages, 48190 KiB  
Article
The E3 Ubiquitin Ligase ATL9 Affects Expression of Defense Related Genes, Cell Death and Callose Deposition in Response to Fungal Infection
by Tingwei Guo, Feng Kong, Carter Burton, Steven Scaglione, Blake Beagles, Justin Ray and Katrina M. Ramonell
Pathogens 2022, 11(1), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11010068 - 05 Jan 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1948
Abstract
Plants use diverse strategies to defend themselves from biotic stresses in nature, which include the activation of defense gene expression and a variety of signal transduction pathways. Previous studies have shown that protein ubiquitination plays a critical role in plant defense responses, however [...] Read more.
Plants use diverse strategies to defend themselves from biotic stresses in nature, which include the activation of defense gene expression and a variety of signal transduction pathways. Previous studies have shown that protein ubiquitination plays a critical role in plant defense responses, however the details of its function remain unclear. Our previous work has shown that increasing expression levels of ATL9, an E3 ubiquitin ligase in Arabidopsis thaliana, increased resistance to infection by the fungal pathogen, Golovinomyces cichoracearum. In this study, we demonstrate that the defense-related proteins PDF1.2, PCC1 and FBS1 directly interact with ATL9 and are targeted for degradation to the proteasome by ATL9. The expression levels of PDF1.2, PCC1 and FBS1 are decreased in T-DNA insertional mutants of atl9 and T-DNA insertional mutants of pdf1.2, pcc1 and fbs1 are more susceptible to fungal infection. In addition, callose is more heavily deposited at infection sites in the mutants of atl9, fbs1, pcc1 and pdf1.2. Overexpression of ATL9 and of mutants in fbs1, pcc1 and pdf1.2 showed increased levels of cell death during infection. Together these results indicate that ubiquitination, cell death and callose deposition may work together to enhance defense responses to fungal pathogens. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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14 pages, 1653 KiB  
Article
Detection of Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Babesia odocoilei, Babesia sp., Borrelia burgdorferi Sensu Lato, and Hepatozoon canis in Ixodes scapularis Ticks Collected in Eastern Canada
by John D. Scott and Risa R. Pesapane
Pathogens 2021, 10(10), 1265; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10101265 - 01 Oct 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3777
Abstract
Tick-borne pathogens cause infectious diseases that inflict much societal and financial hardship worldwide. Blacklegged ticks, Ixodes scapularis, are primary vectors of several epizootic and zoonotic pathogens. The aim was to find varius pathogens of I. scapularis and to determine their prevalence. In [...] Read more.
Tick-borne pathogens cause infectious diseases that inflict much societal and financial hardship worldwide. Blacklegged ticks, Ixodes scapularis, are primary vectors of several epizootic and zoonotic pathogens. The aim was to find varius pathogens of I. scapularis and to determine their prevalence. In Ontario and Quebec, 113 I. scapularis ticks were collected from songbirds, mammals, including humans, and by flagging. PCR and DNA sequencing detected five different microorganisms: Anaplasma phagocytophilum, 1 (0.9%); Babesia odocoilei, 17 (15.3%); Babesia microti-like sp., 1 (0.9%); Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (Bbsl), 29 (26.1%); and Hepatozoon canis, 1 (0.9%). Five coinfections of Bbsl and Babesia odocoilei occurred. Notably, H. canis was documented for the first time in Canada and, at the same time, demonstrates the first transstadial passage of H. canis in I. scapularis. Transstadial passage of Bbsl and B. odocoilei was also witnessed. A novel undescribed piroplasm (Babesia microti-like) was detected. An established population of I. scapularis ticks was detected at Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec. Because songbirds widely disperse I. scapularis larvae and nymphs, exposure in an endemic area is not required to contract tick-borne zoonoses. Based on the diversity of zoonotic pathogens in I. scapularis ticks, clinicians need to be aware that people who are bitten by I. scapularis ticks may require select antimicrobial regimens. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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16 pages, 3841 KiB  
Article
Multi-Epitope Vaccine Design Using an Immunoinformatic Approach for SARS-CoV-2
by Ye Feng, Haiping Jiang, Min Qiu, Liang Liu, Shengmei Zou, Yun Li, Qianpeng Guo, Ning Han, Yingqiang Sun, Kui Wang, Lantian Lu, Xinlei Zhuang, Shanshan Zhang, Shuqing Chen and Fan Mo
Pathogens 2021, 10(6), 737; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10060737 - 11 Jun 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3732
Abstract
Through 4 June 2021, COVID-19 has caused over 172.84 million cases of infection and 3.71 million deaths worldwide. Due to its rapid dissemination and high mutation rate, it is essential to develop a vaccine harboring multiple epitopes and efficacious against multiple variants to [...] Read more.
Through 4 June 2021, COVID-19 has caused over 172.84 million cases of infection and 3.71 million deaths worldwide. Due to its rapid dissemination and high mutation rate, it is essential to develop a vaccine harboring multiple epitopes and efficacious against multiple variants to prevent the immune escape of SARS-CoV-2. An in silico approach based on the viral genome was applied to identify 19 high-immunogenic B-cell epitopes and 499 human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-restricted T-cell epitopes. Thirty multi-epitope peptide vaccines were designed by iNeo-Suite and manufactured by solid-phase synthesis. Docking analysis confirmed stable hydrogen bonds of epitopes with their corresponding HLA alleles. When four peptide candidates derived from the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 were selected to immunize mice, a significantly larger amount of total IgG in serum, as well as an increase of CD19+ cells in the inguinal lymph nodes, were observed in the peptide-immunized mice compared to the control. The ratios of IFN-γ-secreting lymphocytes in CD4+ or CD8+ T-cells in the peptide-immunized mice were higher than those in the control mice. There were also a larger number of IFN-γ-secreting T-cells in the spleens of peptide-immunized mice. The peptide vaccines in this study successfully elicited antigen-specific humoral and cellular immune responses in mice. To further validate the safety and efficacy of this vaccine, animal studies using a primate model, as well as clinical trials in humans, are required. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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Review

Jump to: Research, Other

22 pages, 1534 KiB  
Review
Unrevealing the Mystery of Latent Leishmaniasis: What Cells Can Host Leishmania?
by Andrea Valigurová and Iva Kolářová
Pathogens 2023, 12(2), 246; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12020246 - 03 Feb 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2461
Abstract
Leishmania spp. (Kinetoplastida) are unicellular parasites causing leishmaniases, neglected tropical diseases of medical and veterinary importance. In the vertebrate host, Leishmania parasites multiply intracellularly in professional phagocytes, such as monocytes and macrophages. However, their close relative with intracellular development—Trypanosoma cruzi—can unlock [...] Read more.
Leishmania spp. (Kinetoplastida) are unicellular parasites causing leishmaniases, neglected tropical diseases of medical and veterinary importance. In the vertebrate host, Leishmania parasites multiply intracellularly in professional phagocytes, such as monocytes and macrophages. However, their close relative with intracellular development—Trypanosoma cruzi—can unlock even non-professional phagocytes. Since Leishmania and T. cruzi have similar organelle equipment, is it possible that Leishmania can invade and even proliferate in cells other than the professional phagocytes? Additionally, could these cells play a role in the long-term persistence of Leishmania in the host, even in cured individuals? In this review, we provide (i) an overview of non-canonical Leishmania host cells and (ii) an insight into the strategies that Leishmania may use to enter them. Many studies point to fibroblasts as already established host cells that are important in latent leishmaniasis and disease epidemiology, as they support Leishmania transformation into amastigotes and even their multiplication. To invade them, Leishmania causes damage to their plasma membrane and exploits the subsequent repair mechanism via lysosome-triggered endocytosis. Unrevealing the interactions between Leishmania and its non-canonical host cells may shed light on the persistence of these parasites in vertebrate hosts, a way to control latent leishmaniasis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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24 pages, 392 KiB  
Review
Molecular Targets for Foodborne Pathogenic Bacteria Detection
by Spiros Paramithiotis
Pathogens 2023, 12(1), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12010104 - 08 Jan 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2964
Abstract
The detection of foodborne pathogenic bacteria currently relies on their ability to grow on chemically defined liquid and solid media, which is the essence of the classical microbiological approach. Such procedures are time-consuming and the quality of the result is affected by the [...] Read more.
The detection of foodborne pathogenic bacteria currently relies on their ability to grow on chemically defined liquid and solid media, which is the essence of the classical microbiological approach. Such procedures are time-consuming and the quality of the result is affected by the selectivity of the media employed. Several alternative strategies based on the detection of molecular markers have been proposed. These markers may be cell constituents, may reside on the cell envelope or may be specific metabolites. Each marker provides specific advantages and, at the same time, suffers from specific limitations. The food matrix and chemical composition, as well as the accompanying microbiota, may also severely compromise detection. The aim of the present review article is to present and critically discuss all available information regarding the molecular targets that have been employed as markers for the detection of foodborne pathogens. Their strengths and limitations, as well as the proposed alleviation strategies, are presented, with particular emphasis on their applicability in real food systems and the challenges that are yet to be effectively addressed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
24 pages, 1578 KiB  
Review
Prevalence and Implications of Shiga Toxin-Producing E. coli in Farm and Wild Ruminants
by Ritesh Ray and Pallavi Singh
Pathogens 2022, 11(11), 1332; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11111332 - 11 Nov 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3740
Abstract
Shiga-toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) is a food-borne pathogen that causes human gastrointestinal infections across the globe, leading to kidney failure or even death in severe cases. E. coli are commensal members of humans and animals’ (cattle, bison, and pigs) guts, however, may acquire [...] Read more.
Shiga-toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) is a food-borne pathogen that causes human gastrointestinal infections across the globe, leading to kidney failure or even death in severe cases. E. coli are commensal members of humans and animals’ (cattle, bison, and pigs) guts, however, may acquire Shiga-toxin-encoded phages. This acquisition or colonization by STEC may lead to dysbiosis in the intestinal microbial community of the host. Wildlife and livestock animals can be asymptomatically colonized by STEC, leading to pathogen shedding and transmission. Furthermore, there has been a steady uptick in new STEC variants representing various serotypes. These, along with hybrids of other pathogenic E. coli (UPEC and ExPEC), are of serious concern, especially when they possess enhanced antimicrobial resistance, biofilm formation, etc. Recent studies have reported these in the livestock and food industry with minimal focus on wildlife. Disturbed natural habitats and changing climates are increasingly creating wildlife reservoirs of these pathogens, leading to a rise in zoonotic infections. Therefore, this review comprehensively surveyed studies on STEC prevalence in livestock and wildlife hosts. We further present important microbial and environmental factors contributing to STEC spread as well as infections. Finally, we delve into potential strategies for limiting STEC shedding and transmission. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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22 pages, 1015 KiB  
Review
SARS-CoV-2 Variants Identification: Overview of Molecular Existing Methods
by Giulia Berno, Lavinia Fabeni, Giulia Matusali, Cesare Ernesto Maria Gruber, Martina Rueca, Emanuela Giombini and Anna Rosa Garbuglia
Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1058; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091058 - 17 Sep 2022
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2705
Abstract
Since the beginning of COVID-19 pandemic the Real Time sharing of genome sequences of circulating virus supported the diagnostics and surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 and its transmission dynamics. SARS-CoV-2 straightaway showed its tendency to mutate and adapt to the host, culminating in the emergence [...] Read more.
Since the beginning of COVID-19 pandemic the Real Time sharing of genome sequences of circulating virus supported the diagnostics and surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 and its transmission dynamics. SARS-CoV-2 straightaway showed its tendency to mutate and adapt to the host, culminating in the emergence of variants; so it immediately became of crucial importance to be able to detect them quickly but also to be able to monitor in depth the changes on the whole genome to early identify the new possibly emerging variants. In this scenario, this manuscript aims to provide an overview of the existing methods for the identification of SARS-CoV-2 variants (from rapid method based on identification of one or more specific mutations to Whole Genome sequencing approach-WGS), taking into account limitations, advantages and applications of them in the field of diagnosis and surveillance of SARS-CoV-2. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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20 pages, 1321 KiB  
Review
Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Infection after Kidney Transplantation: A Comprehensive Review
by Bogdan Marian Sorohan, Gener Ismail, Dorina Tacu, Bogdan Obrișcă, Gina Ciolan, Costin Gîngu, Ioanel Sinescu and Cătălin Baston
Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1041; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091041 - 13 Sep 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3824
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) in kidney transplant (KT) recipients is an important opportunistic infection with higher incidence and prevalence than in the general population and is associated with important morbidity and mortality. We performed an extensive literature review of articles published between 1 January 2000 [...] Read more.
Tuberculosis (TB) in kidney transplant (KT) recipients is an important opportunistic infection with higher incidence and prevalence than in the general population and is associated with important morbidity and mortality. We performed an extensive literature review of articles published between 1 January 2000 and 15 June 2022 to provide an evidence-based review of epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment and outcomes of TB in KT recipients. We included all studies which reported epidemiological and/or outcome data regarding active TB in KT, and we approached the diagnostic and treatment challenges according to the current guidelines. Prevalence of active TB in KT recipients ranges between 0.3–15.2%. KT recipients with active TB could have a rejection rate up to 55.6%, a rate of graft loss that varies from 2.2% to 66.6% and a mortality rate up to 60%. Understanding the epidemiological risk, risk factors, transmission modalities, diagnosis and treatment challenges is critical for clinicians in providing an appropriate management for KT with TB. Among diagnostic challenges, which are at the same time associated with delay in management, the following should be considered: atypical clinical presentation, association with co-infections, decreased predictive values of screening tests, diverse radiological aspects and particular diagnostic methods. Regarding treatment challenges in KT recipients with TB, drug interactions, drug toxicities and therapeutical adherence must be considered. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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16 pages, 1181 KiB  
Review
Do or Die: HPV E5, E6 and E7 in Cell Death Evasion
by Josipa Skelin, Ivan Sabol and Vjekoslav Tomaić
Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1027; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091027 - 09 Sep 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4024
Abstract
Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) infect the dividing cells of human epithelia and hijack the cellular replication machinery to ensure their own propagation. In the effort to adapt the cell to suit their own reproductive needs, the virus changes a number of processes, amongst which [...] Read more.
Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) infect the dividing cells of human epithelia and hijack the cellular replication machinery to ensure their own propagation. In the effort to adapt the cell to suit their own reproductive needs, the virus changes a number of processes, amongst which is the ability of the cell to undergo programmed cell death. Viral infections, forced cell divisions and mutations, which accumulate as a result of uncontrolled proliferation, all trigger one of several cell death pathways. Here, we examine the mechanisms employed by HPVs to ensure the survival of infected cells manipulated into cell cycle progression and proliferation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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9 pages, 2755 KiB  
Review
The Relevance of TLR8 in Viral Infections
by Iván Martínez-Espinoza and Antonieta Guerrero-Plata
Pathogens 2022, 11(2), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11020134 - 22 Jan 2022
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5464
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are the largest pattern recognition receptors responsible for activating the innate and adaptive immune response against viruses through the release of inflammatory cytokines and antiviral mediators. Viruses are recognized by several TLRs, including TLR8, which is known to bind ssRNA [...] Read more.
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are the largest pattern recognition receptors responsible for activating the innate and adaptive immune response against viruses through the release of inflammatory cytokines and antiviral mediators. Viruses are recognized by several TLRs, including TLR8, which is known to bind ssRNA structures. However, the similarities between TLR8 and TLR7 have obscured the distinctive characteristics of TLR8 activation and its importance in the immune system. Here we discuss the activation and regulation of TLR8 by viruses and its importance in therapeutical options such as vaccine adjuvants and antiviral stimulators. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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Other

Jump to: Research, Review

6 pages, 1071 KiB  
Case Report
Bacillus simplex as the Most Probable Culprit of Penetrating Trauma Infection: A Case Report
by Panagiota Xaplanteri, Dimitrios S. Serpanos, Ellie Dorva, Tatiana Beqo-Rokaj, Eleni Papadogeorgaki and Alexandra Lekkou
Pathogens 2022, 11(10), 1203; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11101203 - 18 Oct 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2665
Abstract
Bacillus simplex is an environmental microorganism found in soil. Herein, we present the case of a 69-year-old Greek male patient who attended the Emergency Department at our hospital. The patient complained of lower right extremity swelling and pain, after suffering penetrating trauma whilst [...] Read more.
Bacillus simplex is an environmental microorganism found in soil. Herein, we present the case of a 69-year-old Greek male patient who attended the Emergency Department at our hospital. The patient complained of lower right extremity swelling and pain, after suffering penetrating trauma whilst doing farm work in a rural area. Swab aerobic cultures revealed Bacillus simplex as identified by MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry. The strain was susceptible to vancomycin, imipenem, clindamycin, and ciprofloxacin. Our patient refused hospitalization; therefore, both ciprofloxacin and clindamycin were registered for a total of 19 days. No complications were experienced, and he recovered fully. In our case, the thorough cleaning of the ulcer bed prior to sample collection, the fact that it was the only microorganism isolated, and the wound’s aggravating mechanism led the authors of the present study to the conclusion that B. simplex was the most probable culprit of the infection. To our knowledge, this is the second probable case of B. simplex infection described worldwide, and the first in Greece. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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10 pages, 1616 KiB  
Case Report
Fungal Rhinosinusitis Caused by a Curvularia sp. Infection in a Female Sumatran Orangutan: A Case Report
by Richard R. E. Uwiera, Shyan Vijayasekaran, Alisa M. Wallace, David J. Reese, Audra L. Walsh, Trina C. Uwiera, Rebecca Vaughan-Higgins and Simone D. Vitali
Pathogens 2022, 11(10), 1166; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11101166 - 09 Oct 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2444
Abstract
Mycotic nasal cavity and paranasal sinus infections in non-human primates (NHPs) are relatively uncommon diseases of the upper respiratory tract. This case study describes the clinical and pathological features as well as the diagnostic techniques and interventions applied to treat the associated disease. [...] Read more.
Mycotic nasal cavity and paranasal sinus infections in non-human primates (NHPs) are relatively uncommon diseases of the upper respiratory tract. This case study describes the clinical and pathological features as well as the diagnostic techniques and interventions applied to treat the associated disease. A 23-year-old primiparous female Sumatran orangutan residing at Perth Zoo in Western Australia developed intermittent episodes of right-sided epistaxis. An ulcerative nasal mass was identified from a diagnostic endoscopy. The mass was initially biopsied and showed the morphological characteristics of a dematiaceous fungal organism upon a histological examination. There were prominent mucosal and submucosal granulomatous infiltrates containing histocytes, giant cells, and lymphocytes admixed with fewer numbers of neutrophils and eosinophils surrounding the fungal organism. The organism was identified as Curvularia sp. by the fungal characteristics associated with the histopathology, culture growth, and PCR analysis. The mass was subsequently removed with endoscopic sinus surgery (ESS) and the orangutan was medically treated with itraconazole for several months. The recovery was uneventful and the orangutan returned to full health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Pathogens—Feature Papers)
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