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14 pages, 1853 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of Prolonged Water-Only Fasting and Refeeding on Markers of Cardiometabolic Risk

by Eugene Scharf, Evelyn Zeiler, Mackson Ncube, Patricia Kolbe, Su-Yeon Hwang, Alan Goldhamer and Toshia R. Myers

Nutrients 2022, 14(6), 1183; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14061183 - 11 Mar 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 10009

Abstract

(1) Background: Cardiometabolic disease, including insulin resistance, hyperlipidemia, and hypertension, are major contributors to adverse health outcomes. Fasting has gained interest as a nonpharmacological therapeutic adjunct for these disorders. (2) Methods: We conducted a prospective, single-center study on the effects of prolonged water-only [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Cardiometabolic disease, including insulin resistance, hyperlipidemia, and hypertension, are major contributors to adverse health outcomes. Fasting has gained interest as a nonpharmacological therapeutic adjunct for these disorders. (2) Methods: We conducted a prospective, single-center study on the effects of prolonged water-only fasting followed by an exclusively whole-plant-food refeeding diet on accepted measures of cardiovascular risk and metabolic health. Participants were recruited from patients who had voluntarily elected to complete a water-only fast in order to improve their overall health according to an established protocol at an independent, residential medical center. Median fasting and refeed lengths were 17 and 8 days, respectively. The primary endpoint was to describe the mean glucose tolerance as indicated by Homeostatic Model Assessment of Insulin Resistance (HOMA-IR) scores at baseline, end-of-fast (EOF), and end-of-refeed (EOR) visits. Secondary endpoints were to describe the mean weight, body mass index (BMI), abdominal circumference (AC), systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), lipid panel, and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP) at the same time points. (3) Results: The study enrolled 48 overweight/obese non-diabetic participants, of which 26 completed the full study protocol. At the EOF visit, the median SBP, AC, low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and hsCRP were decreased and triglycerides (TG) and HOMA-IR scores were increased. Conclusion: Prolonged water-only fasting and whole-plant-food refeeding holds potential as a clinical therapy for cardiometabolic disease but increased TG and HOMA-IR values after refeeding necessitate further inquiry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Implication of Intermittent Fasting on Health and Diseases)

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13 pages, 2456 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fasting-Mimicking Diet Reduces Trimethylamine N-Oxide Levels and Improves Serum Biochemical Parameters in Healthy Volunteers

by Melita Videja, Eduards Sevostjanovs, Sabine Upmale-Engela, Edgars Liepinsh, Ilze Konrade and Maija Dambrova

Nutrients 2022, 14(5), 1093; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14051093 - 05 Mar 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 7763

Abstract

Elevated plasma levels of trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) have been proposed as a diet-derived biomarker of cardiometabolic disease risk. Caloric restriction is the most common dietary intervention used to improve cardiometabolic health; however, novel trends suggest a fasting-mimicking diet (FMD) as a more feasible [...] Read more.

Elevated plasma levels of trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) have been proposed as a diet-derived biomarker of cardiometabolic disease risk. Caloric restriction is the most common dietary intervention used to improve cardiometabolic health; however, novel trends suggest a fasting-mimicking diet (FMD) as a more feasible alternative. FMD is a variation of intermittent fasting, based on caloric restriction and limitation of protein sources of animal origin, applied in daily cycles during a 5-day period. As TMAO is intensively produced by gut microbiota after the consumption of animal-derived products, we aim to investigate whether a 5-day FMD affects plasma TMAO levels and markers of metabolic health. To investigate whether an increase in vegetable intake possesses similar effects on TMAO levels and metabolic parameters, healthy volunteers (n = 24) were subjected to a 5-day FMD and 19 volunteers served as a reference group (VEG). This group of volunteers consumed an additional four servings of vegetables per day, but otherwise stayed on their usual diet. FMD resulted in a twofold decrease in plasma TMAO levels, which was not evident in the volunteers from the VEG group. Moreover, FMD led to a weight loss of 2.8 ± 0.2 kg and a subsequent reduction in BMI compared to baseline. The FMD group exhibited a significant elevation in plasma ketone bodies (14-fold compared to baseline) and a decrease in IGF-1 levels by 37 ± 8 ng/mL. Since fasting glucose and C-peptide levels decreased, all volunteers in the FMD group showed improved insulin sensitivity and a decreased HOMA-IR index. In contrast, in the VEG group, only a slight reduction in plasma levels of fasting glucose and triglycerides was noted. In conclusion, we show that FMD is a viable strategy to reduce plasma levels of TMAO by limiting caloric intake and animal-derived protein consumption. The reduction in the level of TMAO could be an additional benefit of FMD, leading to a reduced risk of cardiometabolic diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Implication of Intermittent Fasting on Health and Diseases)

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23 pages, 814 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mental and Behavioural Responses to Bahá’í Fasting: Looking behind the Scenes of a Religiously Motivated Intermittent Fast Using a Mixed Methods Approach

by Raphaela M. Ring, Clemens Eisenmann, Farid I. Kandil, Nico Steckhan, Sarah Demmrich, Caroline Klatte, Christian S. Kessler, Michael Jeitler, Michael Boschmann, Andreas Michalsen, Sarah B. Blakeslee, Barbara Stöckigt, Wiebke Stritter and Daniela A. Koppold-Liebscher

Nutrients 2022, 14(5), 1038; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14051038 - 28 Feb 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3404

Abstract

Background/Objective: Historically, fasting has been practiced not only for medical but also for religious reasons. Bahá’ís follow an annual religious intermittent dry fast of 19 days. We inquired into motivation behind and subjective health impacts of Bahá’í fasting. Methods: A convergent parallel mixed [...] Read more.

Background/Objective: Historically, fasting has been practiced not only for medical but also for religious reasons. Bahá’ís follow an annual religious intermittent dry fast of 19 days. We inquired into motivation behind and subjective health impacts of Bahá’í fasting. Methods: A convergent parallel mixed methods design was embedded in a clinical single arm observational study. Semi-structured individual interviews were conducted before (n = 7), during (n = 8), and after fasting (n = 8). Three months after the fasting period, two focus group interviews were conducted (n = 5/n = 3). A total of 146 Bahá’í volunteers answered an online survey at five time points before, during, and after fasting. Results: Fasting was found to play a central role for the religiosity of interviewees, implying changes in daily structures, spending time alone, engaging in religious practices, and experiencing social belonging. Results show an increase in mindfulness and well-being, which were accompanied by behavioural changes and experiences of self-efficacy and inner freedom. Survey scores point to an increase in mindfulness and well-being during fasting, while stress, anxiety, and fatigue decreased. Mindfulness remained elevated even three months after the fast. Conclusion: Bahá’í fasting seems to enhance participants’ mindfulness and well-being, lowering stress levels and reducing fatigue. Some of these effects lasted more than three months after fasting. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Implication of Intermittent Fasting on Health and Diseases)

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12 pages, 5439 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Intermittent Fasting Improves High-Fat Diet-Induced Obesity Cardiomyopathy via Alleviating Lipid Deposition and Apoptosis and Decreasing m6A Methylation in the Heart

by Zujie Xu, Ying Qin, Binbin Lv, Zhenjun Tian and Bing Zhang

Nutrients 2022, 14(2), 251; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14020251 - 07 Jan 2022

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 6305

Abstract

Intermittent fasting (IF) plays an essential role in improving lipid metabolism disorders caused by metabolic cardiomyopathy. Growing evidence revealed that N6-methyladenosine (m6A) RNA methylation is related to obesity and lipid metabolic. Our study aimed to assess the beneficial effects of IF on lipid [...] Read more.

Intermittent fasting (IF) plays an essential role in improving lipid metabolism disorders caused by metabolic cardiomyopathy. Growing evidence revealed that N6-methyladenosine (m6A) RNA methylation is related to obesity and lipid metabolic. Our study aimed to assess the beneficial effects of IF on lipid deposition, apoptosis, and m6A methylation in high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity cardiomyopathy. Male C57BL/6J mice were fed a normal diet (ND) or HFD ad libitum for 13 weeks, after which time a subgroup of HFD mice were subjected to IF for 24 h and fed HFD in the other day for 8 weeks. We found that IF intervention significantly improved cardiac functional and structural impairment and serum lipid metabolic disorder induced by HFD. Furthermore, IF intervention decreased the mRNA levels of the fatty acid uptake genes of FABP1, FATP1, and CD36 and the fatty acid synthesis genes of SREBF1, FAS, and ACCα and increased the mRNA levels of the fatty acid catabolism genes of ATGL, HSL, LAL, and LPL in cardiac tissueof HFD-induced obese mice. TUNEL-positive cells, Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, and Cleaved Caspase-3 protein expression in HFD-induced obese mice hearts was down-regulated by IF intervention. In addition, IF intervention decreased the m6A methylation levels and METTL3 expression and increased FTO expression in HFD-induced obesity cardiomyopathy. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that IF attenuated cardiac lipid deposition and apoptosis, as well as improved cardiac functional and structural impairment in HFD-induced obesity cardiomyopathy, by a mechanism associated with decreased m6A RNA methylation levels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Implication of Intermittent Fasting on Health and Diseases)

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10 pages, 1182 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metabolic Response to Daytime Dry Fasting in Bahá’í Volunteers—Results of a Preliminary Study

by Anja Mähler, Carmen Jahn, Lars Klug, Caroline Klatte, Andreas Michalsen, Daniela Koppold-Liebscher and Michael Boschmann

Nutrients 2022, 14(1), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14010148 - 29 Dec 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5863

Abstract

Each year in March, adherents of the Bahá’í faith abstain from eating and drinking from sunrise to sunset for 19 days. Thus, Bahá’í fasting (BF) can be considered as a form of daytime dry fasting. We investigated whether BF decreased energy expenditure after [...] Read more.

Each year in March, adherents of the Bahá’í faith abstain from eating and drinking from sunrise to sunset for 19 days. Thus, Bahá’í fasting (BF) can be considered as a form of daytime dry fasting. We investigated whether BF decreased energy expenditure after a meal and whether it improved anthropometric measures and systemic and tissue-level metabolic parameters. This was a self-controlled cohort study with 11 healthy men. We measured anthropometric parameters, metabolic markers in venous blood and pre- and postprandial energy metabolism at systemic (indirect calorimetry) and tissue (adipose tissue and skeletal muscle microdialysis) level, both before and during BF. During BF, we found reduced body weight, body mass index, body fat and blood glucose. Postprandial increase in energy expenditure was lower and diet-induced thermogenesis tended to be lower as well. In adipose tissue, perfusion, glucose supply and lipolysis were increased. In skeletal muscle, tissue perfusion did not change. Glucose supply and lipolysis were decreased. Glucose oxidation was increased, indicating improved insulin sensitivity. BF may be a promising approach to losing weight and improving metabolism and health. However, outside the context of religiously motivated fasting, skipping a meal in the evening (dinner cancelling) might be recommended, as metabolism appeared to be reduced in the evening. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Implication of Intermittent Fasting on Health and Diseases)

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11 pages, 397 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ramadan Fasting Improves Body Composition without Exacerbating Depression in Males with Diagnosed Major Depressive Disorders

by Haitham Jahrami, Ahmed S. BaHammam, Eman Ahmed Haji, Nicola L. Bragazzi, Ihab Rakha, Amani Alsabbagh, Boya Nugraha and Stefan M. Pasiakos

Nutrients 2021, 13(8), 2718; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13082718 - 07 Aug 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3507

Abstract

Background: Ramadan fasting (RF) is a form of intermittent fasting that generally improves body composition and related metabolic profiles. Whether RF exacerbates depressive symptomatology in individuals diagnosed with major depressive disorder (MDD) is undetermined. Methods: 100 men, who lived in Bahrain and were [...] Read more.

Background: Ramadan fasting (RF) is a form of intermittent fasting that generally improves body composition and related metabolic profiles. Whether RF exacerbates depressive symptomatology in individuals diagnosed with major depressive disorder (MDD) is undetermined. Methods: 100 men, who lived in Bahrain and were between the ages of 18 and 64 years with an established diagnosis of MDD, participated in this 4-week study. Based on preference, participants were assigned to a fasting group (FG, n = 50) and a non-fasting group (NFG, n = 50). The FG engaged in fasting from 03:40 to 18:10 (dawn and dusk timings). Changes in depressive symptoms, body mass, body composition, and components of metabolic syndrome were measured. Results: There were no significant changes in depressive symptoms within the FG vs. NFG after controlling for baseline covariates: mean difference 0.49 (SE = 0.63), p = 0.43. No adverse effects were reported in either group. The FG experienced significant reductions in body mass, 1.87 kg, p = 0.001; body mass index, 0.69 kg/m², p = 0.001; body fat, 0.87%, p = 0.001; body surface area, 0.03 m², p = 0.001; and lean mass, 0.77 kg, p = 0.001. Conclusions: RF did not negatively affect depressive symptoms and improved body composition, suggesting short-term intermittent fasting may be a safe dietary practice for adult males with MDD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Implication of Intermittent Fasting on Health and Diseases)

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13 pages, 615 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Does the Energy Restriction Intermittent Fasting Diet Alleviate Metabolic Syndrome Biomarkers? A Randomized Controlled Trial

by Yasemin Ergul Kunduraci and Hanefi Ozbek

Nutrients 2020, 12(10), 3213; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12103213 - 21 Oct 2020

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 13440

Abstract

The aim of this study was to determine the efficacy of an energy restriction intermittent fasting diet in metabolic biomarkers and weight management among adults with metabolic syndrome. This randomized controlled study was performed with metabolic syndrome patients, aged 18–65 years, at an [...] Read more.

The aim of this study was to determine the efficacy of an energy restriction intermittent fasting diet in metabolic biomarkers and weight management among adults with metabolic syndrome. This randomized controlled study was performed with metabolic syndrome patients, aged 18–65 years, at an academic institution in Istanbul, Turkey (n = 70). All participants were randomized to the Intermittent Energy Restriction (IER) intervention group and Continuous Energy Restriction (CER) control group. Biochemical tests including lipid profile, fasting plasma glucose, insulin, glycosylated hemoglobin Type A1c (HbA1c), homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), blood pressure, and body composition were evaluated at baseline and at the 12th week in diet interviews. Dietary intake was measured with the 24-h dietary recall method and dietary quality was evaluated with the Healthy Eating Index-2010. Changes in body weight (≈7% weight loss) and composition were similar in both groups. Blood pressure, total cholesterol, triglyceride, low-density lipoprotein (LDL), fasting glucose, and insulin at the 12th week decreased in both groups (p < 0.05). No significant differences were observed in metabolic syndrome biomarkers between the IER and CER groups. The energy-restricted intermittent fasting diet did not cause any deficiencies in macronutrient and fiber intake in the subjects. Healthy Eating Index (HEI) index scores were achieved similarly in both groups, and subjects’ dietary intakes were close to daily reference nutritional intake values. The technique used to achieve energy restriction, whether intermittent or continuous, appears to alleviate the metabolic syndrome biomarkers activated by weight loss. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Implication of Intermittent Fasting on Health and Diseases)

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Review

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16 pages, 647 KiB

Open AccessReview

Effects of Intermittent Fasting on Brain Metabolism

by Alex Brocchi, Eleni Rebelos, Angela Dardano, Michele Mantuano and Giuseppe Daniele

Nutrients 2022, 14(6), 1275; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14061275 - 17 Mar 2022

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 19259

Abstract

We are facing an obesity epidemic, and obesity itself and its close companion, type 2 diabetes, are independent risk factors for neurodegeneration. While most medical treatments fail to induce a clinically meaningful improvement in neurodegenerative disorders, lifestyle interventions have emerged in the spotlight. [...] Read more.

We are facing an obesity epidemic, and obesity itself and its close companion, type 2 diabetes, are independent risk factors for neurodegeneration. While most medical treatments fail to induce a clinically meaningful improvement in neurodegenerative disorders, lifestyle interventions have emerged in the spotlight. A recently rediscovered approach is intermittent fasting (IF), which, compared to the classic caloric restriction regimens, limits only the time of eating, rather than the number of calories allowed per day. There is already a large amount of evidence from preclinical and clinical studies showing the beneficial effects of IF. In this review, we specifically focus on the effects of IF on brain metabolism. Key molecular players modified during IF and involved in its beneficial central effects (ketone bodies, BDNF, GABA, GH/IGF-1, FGF2, sirtuin-3, mTOR, and gut microbiota) are identified and discussed. Studies suggest that IF induces several molecular and cellular adaptations in neurons, which, overall, enhance cellular stress resistance, synaptic plasticity, and neurogenesis. Still, the absence of guidelines regarding the application of IF to patients hampers its broad utilization in clinical practice, and further studies are needed to improve our knowledge on the different IF protocols and long-term effects of IF on brain metabolism before it can be widely prescribed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Implication of Intermittent Fasting on Health and Diseases)

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15 pages, 1025 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Intermittent Fasting and Metabolic Health

by Izzah Vasim, Chaudry N. Majeed and Mark D. DeBoer

Nutrients 2022, 14(3), 631; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14030631 - 31 Jan 2022

Cited by 53 | Viewed by 36546

Abstract

Given the ongoing strain that the obesity epidemic has placed on public health outcomes, new and effective approaches to weight control are needed. One approach to improving weight and metabolic outcomes is intermittent fasting, which consists of multiple different timing schedules for temporary [...] Read more.

Given the ongoing strain that the obesity epidemic has placed on public health outcomes, new and effective approaches to weight control are needed. One approach to improving weight and metabolic outcomes is intermittent fasting, which consists of multiple different timing schedules for temporary food avoidance, including alternate-day fasting, other similar full-day fasting patterns, and time-restricted feeding (where the day’s food is consumed over a 6-h period, allowing for 18 h of fasting). These feeding schedules have favorable metabolic effects by intermittently inducing the metabolism of fatty acids to ketones. The regimens overall lead to a decrease in weight and have been linked to improvements in dyslipidemia and blood pressure. While more research is needed on longer-term outcomes and this approach should be avoided in particular health conditions, intermittent fasting should be considered as an option for individuals who have a pattern of unhealthy weight gain using standard eating patterns. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Implication of Intermittent Fasting on Health and Diseases)

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17 pages, 821 KiB

Open AccessReview

Intermittent Fasting and the Possible Benefits in Obesity, Diabetes, and Multiple Sclerosis: A Systematic Review of Randomized Clinical Trials

by María Morales-Suarez-Varela, Ester Collado Sánchez, Isabel Peraita-Costa, Agustín Llopis-Morales and José M. Soriano

Nutrients 2021, 13(9), 3179; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13093179 - 13 Sep 2021

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 20322

Abstract

Intermittent fasting has become popular in recent years and is controversially presented as a possible therapeutic adjunct. A bibliographic review of the literature on intermittent fasting and obesity, diabetes, and multiple sclerosis was carried out. The scientific quality of the methodology and the [...] Read more.

Intermittent fasting has become popular in recent years and is controversially presented as a possible therapeutic adjunct. A bibliographic review of the literature on intermittent fasting and obesity, diabetes, and multiple sclerosis was carried out. The scientific quality of the methodology and the results obtained were evaluated in pairs. Intermittent fasting has beneficial effects on the lipid profile, and it is associated with weight loss and a modification of the distribution of abdominal fat in people with obesity and type 2 diabetes as well as an improvement in the control of glycemic levels. In patients with multiple sclerosis, the data available are too scarce to draw any firm conclusions, but it does appear that intermittent fasting may be a safe and feasible intervention. However, it is necessary to continue investigating its long-term effects since so far, the studies carried out are small and of short duration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Implication of Intermittent Fasting on Health and Diseases)

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10 pages, 993 KiB

Open AccessReview

Asprosin—A Fasting-Induced, Glucogenic, and Orexigenic Adipokine as a New Promising Player. Will It Be a New Factor in the Treatment of Obesity, Diabetes, or Infertility? A Review of the Literature

by Agnieszka Irena Mazur-Bialy

Nutrients 2021, 13(2), 620; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020620 - 14 Feb 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 6228

Abstract

Asprosin is a recently discovered protein released during fasting conditions mainly by adipocytes from white adipose tissue. As a glucogenic peptide, it stimulates the release of glucose from hepatic cells by binding to the OLFR734 receptor and leading to the activation of the [...] Read more.

Asprosin is a recently discovered protein released during fasting conditions mainly by adipocytes from white adipose tissue. As a glucogenic peptide, it stimulates the release of glucose from hepatic cells by binding to the OLFR734 receptor and leading to the activation of the G protein-cAMP-PKA pathway. As it crosses the blood–brain barrier, it also acts as an orexigenic peptide that stimulates food intake through activation of AgRP neurons in the hypothalamus; thus, asprosin participates in maintaining the body’s energy homeostasis. Moreover, studies have shown that asprosin levels are pathologically elevated in obesity and related diseases. However, the administration of anti-asprosin antibodies can both normalize its concentration and reduce food intake in obese mice, which makes it an interesting factor to combat obesity and related diseases. Current research also draws attention to the relationship between asprosin and fertility, especially in men. Asprosin improves age- and obesity-related decrease in fertility potential by improving sperm motility. It should also be mentioned that plasma asprosin levels can be differentially modulated by physical activity; intense anaerobic exercise increases asprosin level, while aerobic exercise decreases it. However, further research is necessary to confirm the exact mechanisms of asprosin activity and its potential as a therapeutic target. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Implication of Intermittent Fasting on Health and Diseases)

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13 pages, 241 KiB

Open AccessReview

Studying the Relationship of Intermittent Fasting and β-Amyloid in Animal Model of Alzheimer’s Disease: A Scoping Review

by Muhammad Luqman Nasaruddin, Syarifah Aisyah Syed Abd Halim and Mohd Amir Kamaruzzaman

Nutrients 2020, 12(10), 3215; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12103215 - 21 Oct 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6077

Abstract

We examined the evidence for intermittent fasting (IF) as a preventative tool to influence β-amyloid in animal models of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). A Scopus, Ovid, PubMed, and Web of Science (WoS), search yielded 29 results using the keywords “amyloid beta”, “intermittent fasting”, “intermittent [...] Read more.

We examined the evidence for intermittent fasting (IF) as a preventative tool to influence β-amyloid in animal models of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). A Scopus, Ovid, PubMed, and Web of Science (WoS), search yielded 29 results using the keywords “amyloid beta”, “intermittent fasting”, “intermittent caloric restriction”, “alternate day fasting”, “modified alternate-day fasting”, “time-restricted feeding”, “Ramadan fast”, “intermittent calori* restriction”, “intermittent restrictive diet”, and “Alzheimer*”. Five research articles addressed directly the effects of intermittent fasting on β-amyloid levels in animal models of AD: alternate day fasting (ADF) and time-restricted feeding (TRF) methods were incorporated in these studies. The study designs were found to be heterogeneous. Variations in the levels of β-amyloid peptides or plaque in either the hippocampus, cortical areas, or both in animals following dietary intervention were observed as compared to the ad libitum group. Non-significant changes were observed in three studies, while two studies interestingly demonstrated amelioration and reduction in β-amyloid levels. Given the conflicting results obtained from this study, significant care has to be taken into consideration before the protocol can be applied as a preventative approach to treat Alzheimer’s disease. Longitudinal research is warranted to fully grasp how dietary habits can help alleviate the disease either through upstream or downstream of AD pathology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Implication of Intermittent Fasting on Health and Diseases)

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