Research

14 pages, 10498 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis of Hydrophobic Nanosized Silicon Dioxide with a Spherical Particle Shape and Its Application in Fire-Extinguishing Powder Compositions Based on Struvite

by Igor V. Valtsifer, Yan Huo, Valery V. Zamashchikov, Artem Sh. Shamsutdinov, Natalia B. Kondrashova, Anastasia V. Sivtseva, Anna V. Pyankova and Viktor A. Valtsifer

Nanomaterials 2023, 13(7), 1186; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano13071186 - 27 Mar 2023

Viewed by 1023

Abstract

Textural and morphological features of hydrophobic silicon dioxide, obtained by the hydrolysis of tetraethoxysilane in an ammonia medium followed by modification of a spherical SiO₂ particles surface with a hydrophobic polymethylhydrosiloxane, were studied in this work. The size of silicon dioxide particles [...] Read more.

Textural and morphological features of hydrophobic silicon dioxide, obtained by the hydrolysis of tetraethoxysilane in an ammonia medium followed by modification of a spherical SiO₂ particles surface with a hydrophobic polymethylhydrosiloxane, were studied in this work. The size of silicon dioxide particles was controlled during preparation based on the Stöber process by variation of the amount of water (mol) in relation to other components. The ratio of components, synthesis time and amount of the hydrophobizing agent were determined to obtain superhydrophobic monodisperse silicon dioxide with a spherical particle size of 50–400 nm and a contact angle of more than 150°. In the case of the struvite example, it was demonstrated that the application of spherical- shaped hydrophobic silicon dioxide particles in powder compounds significantly improves the flowability of crystalline hydrates. The functional additive based on the developed silicon dioxide particles makes it possible to implement the use of crystalline hydrates in fire-extinguishing powders, preventing agglomeration and caking processes. The high fire-extinguishing efficiency of the powder composition based on struvite and the developed functional additive has been proven by using thermal analysis methods (TGA/DSC). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inorganic Materials in Nanotechnology: Fabrication, Characterization and Application)

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21 pages, 9687 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Advances in Laser Additive Manufacturing of Cobalt–Chromium Alloy Multi-Layer Mesoscopic Analytical Modelling with Experimental Correlations: From Micro-Dendrite Grains to Bulk Objects

by Muhammad Arif Mahmood, Asif Ur Rehman, Carmen Ristoscu, Mehmet Demir, Gianina Popescu-Pelin, Fatih Pitir, Metin Uymaz Salamci and Ion N. Mihailescu

Nanomaterials 2022, 12(5), 802; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12050802 - 26 Feb 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2807

Abstract

This study presents two analytical models for the laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) process. To begin, the single layer’s dimensions were measured using principal operating conditions, including laser power, laser scanning speed, powder layer thickness, and hatch distance. The single-layer printing dimensions were [...] Read more.

This study presents two analytical models for the laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) process. To begin, the single layer’s dimensions were measured using principal operating conditions, including laser power, laser scanning speed, powder layer thickness, and hatch distance. The single-layer printing dimensions were transformed into multi-layer printing using the hatch distance. The thermal history of the printed layers was used as an input to the Johnson–Mehl–Avrami-Kolmogorov model to estimate the average dendrite grain size. LPBF experiments were conducted for a Cobalt–chromium (Co–Cr) alloy to validate the developed model. The average dendrite grain size was estimated using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) combined with “Image J” software. The Vickers hardness test was performed to correlate the average dendrite grain size and operating conditions. A 10–15% mean absolute deviation was presented between experiments and simulation results. In all samples, a Co-based γ-FCC structure was identified. An inverse correlation was established between the laser power and smaller average dendrite grain, while a direct relationship has been determined between laser scanning speed and average dendrite grain size. A similar trend was identified between hatch distance and average dendrite grain size. A direct link has been determined between the average dendrite grain size and hardness value. Furthermore, a direct relationship has connected the laser volume energy density and hardness value. This study will help experimentalists to design operating conditions based on the required grain size and corresponding mechanical characteristics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inorganic Materials in Nanotechnology: Fabrication, Characterization and Application)

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10 pages, 2360 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of Silver Nanowire-Based Transparent Electrodes Obtained Using Different Drying Methods

by Seo Bum Chu, Dongwook Ko, Jinwook Jung, Sungjin Jo, Dong Choon Hyun, Hyeon-Ju Oh and Jongbok Kim

Nanomaterials 2022, 12(3), 461; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12030461 - 28 Jan 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2456

Abstract

Metal-based transparent top electrodes allow electronic devices to achieve transparency, thereby expanding their application range. Silver nanowire (AgNW)-based transparent electrodes can function as transparent top electrodes, owing to their excellent conductivity and transmittance. However, they require a high-temperature drying process, which damages the [...] Read more.

Metal-based transparent top electrodes allow electronic devices to achieve transparency, thereby expanding their application range. Silver nanowire (AgNW)-based transparent electrodes can function as transparent top electrodes, owing to their excellent conductivity and transmittance. However, they require a high-temperature drying process, which damages the bottom functional layers. Here, we fabricated two types of AgNW-based electrodes using the following three drying methods: thermal, room-temperature, and vacuum. Thereafter, we investigated the variation in their morphological, electrical, and optical characteristics as a function of the drying method and duration. When the AgNW-exposed electrode was dried at room temperature, it exhibited a high surface roughness and low conductivity, owing to the slow solvent evaporation. However, under vacuum, it exhibited a similar electrical conductivity to that achieved by thermal drying because of the decreased solvent boiling point and fast solvent evaporation. Conversely, the AgNW-embedded electrodes exhibited similar roughness values and electrical conductivities regardless of the drying method applied. This was because the polymer shrinkage during the AgNW embedding process generated capillary force and improved the interconnectivity between the nanowires. The AgNW-based electrodes exhibited similar optical properties regardless of the drying method and electrode type. This study reveals that vacuum drying can afford transparent top electrodes without damaging functional layers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inorganic Materials in Nanotechnology: Fabrication, Characterization and Application)

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10 pages, 2313 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Silane Coupling Agent on the Texture and Properties of In Situ Synthesized PI/SiO₂ Nanocomposite Film

by Jindong Huang, Hong Chen, Guanglu Zhang, Xiaowei Fan and Juncheng Liu

Nanomaterials 2022, 12(2), 286; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12020286 - 17 Jan 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1557

Abstract

PI/SiO₂ composite films have been prepared by using in situ polymerization. The influences of the dosage of silane coupling agent (KH-560) on the structure and performance of PI/SiO₂ composite film have been investigated. The results show that in the components without [...] Read more.

PI/SiO₂ composite films have been prepared by using in situ polymerization. The influences of the dosage of silane coupling agent (KH-560) on the structure and performance of PI/SiO₂ composite film have been investigated. The results show that in the components without KH-560, the addition of SiO₂ decreases the transmittance of the sample. Compared to the same SiO₂ doping amount, the transmittance in the visible light range of the sample using KH-560 is higher than that of the sample without KH-560. After adding KH-560, the tensile strength, the elastic modulus the elongation at break of the sample have largely changed. The thermal stability and the ability to resist ultraviolet radiation of the composite film first increases and then decreases. Furthermore, the optimal dosage of KH-560 is 3%. Moreover, the addition of KH-560 has little effect on the transmittance of the PI/SiO₂ composite films before and after UV irradiation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inorganic Materials in Nanotechnology: Fabrication, Characterization and Application)

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14 pages, 4380 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Growth Mechanism of Periodic-Structured MoS₂ by Transmission Electron Microscopy

by Arvind Mukundan, Yu-Ming Tsao, Sofya B. Artemkina, Vladimir E. Fedorov and Hsiang-Chen Wang

Nanomaterials 2022, 12(1), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12010135 - 31 Dec 2021

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 2694

Abstract

Molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂) was grown on a laser-processed periodic-hole sapphire substrate through chemical vapor deposition. The main purpose was to investigate the mechanism of MoS₂ growth in substrate with a periodic structure. By controlling the amount and position of the [...] Read more.

Molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂) was grown on a laser-processed periodic-hole sapphire substrate through chemical vapor deposition. The main purpose was to investigate the mechanism of MoS₂ growth in substrate with a periodic structure. By controlling the amount and position of the precursor, adjusting the growth temperature and time, and setting the flow rate of argon gas, MoS₂ grew in the region of the periodic holes. A series of various growth layer analyses of MoS₂ were then confirmed by Raman spectroscopy, photoluminescence spectroscopy, and atomic force microscopy. Finally, the growth mechanism was studied by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The experimental results show that in the appropriate environment, MoS₂ can be successfully grown on substrate with periodic holes, and the number of growth layers can be determined through measurements. By observing the growth mechanism, composition analysis, and selected area electron diffraction diagram by TEM, we comprehensively understand the growth phenomenon. The results of this research can serve as a reference for the large-scale periodic growth of MoS₂. The production of periodic structures by laser drilling is advantageous, as it is relatively simpler than other methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inorganic Materials in Nanotechnology: Fabrication, Characterization and Application)

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14 pages, 4150 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Anisotropy of 3D Columnar Coatings in Mid-Infrared Spectral Range

by Lina Grineviciute, Soon Hock Ng, Molong Han, Tania Moein, Vijayakumar Anand, Tomas Katkus, Meguya Ryu, Junko Morikawa, Mark J. Tobin, Jitraporn Vongsvivut, Tomas Tolenis and Saulius Juodkazis

Nanomaterials 2021, 11(12), 3247; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11123247 - 29 Nov 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1932

Abstract

Polarisation analysis in the mid-infrared fingerprint region was carried out on thin (∼1

μ

m) Si and SiO₂ films evaporated via glancing angle deposition (GLAD) method at

70^{\circ}

to the normal. Synchrotron-based infrared microspectroscopic measurements were carried out on the Infrared [...] Read more.

Polarisation analysis in the mid-infrared fingerprint region was carried out on thin (∼1

μ

m) Si and SiO₂ films evaporated via glancing angle deposition (GLAD) method at

70^{\circ}

to the normal. Synchrotron-based infrared microspectroscopic measurements were carried out on the Infrared Microspectroscopy (IRM) beamline at Australian Synchrotron. Specific absorption bands, particularly Si-O-Si stretching vibration, was found to follow the angular dependence of ∼

{cos}^{2} θ

, consistent with the absorption anisotropy. This unexpected anisotropy stems from the enhanced absorption in nano-crevices, which have orientation following the

{cos}^{2} θ

angular dependence as revealed by Fourier transforming the image of the surface of 3D columnar films and numerical modeling of light field enhancement by sub-wavelength nano-crevices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inorganic Materials in Nanotechnology: Fabrication, Characterization and Application)

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10 pages, 23392 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nano/Micro-Structured ZnO Rods Synthesized by Thermal Chemical Vapor Deposition with Perpendicular Configuration

by Seok Cheol Choi, Do Kyung Lee and Sang Ho Sohn

Nanomaterials 2021, 11(10), 2518; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11102518 - 27 Sep 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1566

Abstract

Under a one-step process, catalyst-free growth of one-dimensional (1D) ZnO hierarchical nanostructures was performed on ZnO-seeded Si substrate by thermal chemical vapor deposition with a perpendicular setup. The morphological and crystallographic properties of the nano/micro-structured ZnO rods were investigated with varying growth temperature [...] Read more.

Under a one-step process, catalyst-free growth of one-dimensional (1D) ZnO hierarchical nanostructures was performed on ZnO-seeded Si substrate by thermal chemical vapor deposition with a perpendicular setup. The morphological and crystallographic properties of the nano/micro-structured ZnO rods were investigated with varying growth temperature and growth time. X-ray diffraction patterns of 1D ZnO double-structured rods showed the hexagonal wurtzite structure. The morphology and crystal structure of the ZnO double-structured rods were sensitive to the growth temperature and growth time. From Raman scattering and photoluminescence spectra, the orientation and size effects of the ZnO double-structured rods were discussed in relation to growth temperatures and growth times. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inorganic Materials in Nanotechnology: Fabrication, Characterization and Application)

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15 pages, 3118 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Using Gold-Nanorod-Filled Mesoporous Silica Nanobeads for Enhanced Radiotherapy of Oral Squamous Carcinoma

by Mei-Hsiu Chen, Ming-Hong Chen, Chia-Ying Li, Fu-I Tung, San-Yuan Chen and Tse-Ying Liu

Nanomaterials 2021, 11(9), 2235; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11092235 - 30 Aug 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2776

Abstract

Radiotherapy (RT), in combination with surgery, is an essential treatment strategy for oral cancer. Although irradiation provides effective control over tumor growth, the surrounding normal tissues are almost inevitably affected. With further understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in radiation response and recent [...] Read more.

Radiotherapy (RT), in combination with surgery, is an essential treatment strategy for oral cancer. Although irradiation provides effective control over tumor growth, the surrounding normal tissues are almost inevitably affected. With further understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in radiation response and recent advances in nanotechnology, using gold nanoparticles as a radiosensitizer provides the preferential sensitization of tumor cells to radiation and minimizes normal tissue damage. Herein, we developed gold nano-sesame-beads (GNSbs), a gold-nanorod-seeded mesoporous silica nanoparticle, as a novel radioenhancer to achieve radiotherapy with a higher therapeutic index. GNSbs in combination with 2 Gy irradiation effectively enhanced the cytotoxic activity CAL-27 cells. The well-designed structure of GNSbs showed preferential cellular uptake by CAL-27 cells at 24 h after incubation. Gold nanorods with high density modified on mesoporous silica nanoparticles resulted in significant reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation after irradiation exposure compared with irradiation alone. Furthermore, GNSbs and irradiation induced more prominent DNA double-strand breaks and G2/M phase arrest in CAL-27 than those in L929. In animal studies, radiotherapy using GNSbs as a radiosensitizer showed significant suppression of tumor growth in an orthotopic model of oral cancer. These results demonstrate that using GNSbs as a radiosensitizer could possess clinical potential for the treatment of oral squamous carcinoma. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inorganic Materials in Nanotechnology: Fabrication, Characterization and Application)

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12 pages, 5069 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure Evaluation and Impurities in La Containing Silicon Oxynitrides

by Abbas Saeed Hakeem, Sharafat Ali, Thomas Höche, Qasem Ahmed Drmosh, Amir Azam Khan and Bo Jonson

Nanomaterials 2021, 11(8), 1896; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11081896 - 23 Jul 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1688

Abstract

Oxynitride glasses are not yet commercialised primarily due to the impurities present in the network of these glasses. In this work, we investigated the microstructure and instinctive defects in nitrogen rich La−Si−O−N glasses. Glasses were prepared by heating a powder mixture of pure [...] Read more.

Oxynitride glasses are not yet commercialised primarily due to the impurities present in the network of these glasses. In this work, we investigated the microstructure and instinctive defects in nitrogen rich La−Si−O−N glasses. Glasses were prepared by heating a powder mixture of pure La metal, Si₃N₄, and SiO₂ in a nitrogen atmosphere at 1650–1800 °C. The microstructure and impurities in the glasses were examined by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy in conjunction with electron energy-loss spectroscopy. Analyses showed that the glasses contain a small amount of spherical metal silicide particles, mostly amorphous or poorly crystalline, and having sizes typically ranging from 1 µm and less. The amount of silicide was estimated to be less than 2 vol. %. There was no systematic relation between silicide formation and glass composition or preparation temperature. The microstructure examination revealed that the opacity of these nitrogen rich glasses is due to the elemental Si arise from the decomposition reaction of silicon nitride and silicon oxide, at a high temperature above ~1600 °C and from the metallic silicide particles formed by the reduction of silicon oxide and silicon nitride at an early stage of reaction to form a silicide intermetallic with the La metal. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inorganic Materials in Nanotechnology: Fabrication, Characterization and Application)

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11 pages, 5243 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Bimetallic ZIF-Derived Co/N-Codoped Porous Carbon Supported Ruthenium Catalysts for Highly Efficient Hydrogen Evolution Reaction

by Hui Qi, Xinglong Guan, Guangyu Lei, Mengyao Zhao, Hongwei He, Kai Li, Guoliang Zhang, Fengbao Zhang, Xiaobin Fan, Wenchao Peng and Yang Li

Nanomaterials 2021, 11(5), 1228; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11051228 - 06 May 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3106

Abstract

Exploring the economical, powerful, and durable electrocatalysts for hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) is highly required for practical application. Herein, nanoclusters-decorated ruthenium, cobalt nanoparticles, and nitrogen codoped porous carbon (Ru-pCo@NC) are prepared with bimetallic zeolite imidazole frameworks (ZnCo-ZIF) as the precursor. Thus, the prepared [...] Read more.

Exploring the economical, powerful, and durable electrocatalysts for hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) is highly required for practical application. Herein, nanoclusters-decorated ruthenium, cobalt nanoparticles, and nitrogen codoped porous carbon (Ru-pCo@NC) are prepared with bimetallic zeolite imidazole frameworks (ZnCo-ZIF) as the precursor. Thus, the prepared Ru-pCo@NC catalyst with a low Ru loading of 3.13 wt% exhibits impressive HER catalytic behavior in 1 M KOH, with an overpotential of only 30 mV at the current density of 10 mA cm⁻², Tafel slope as low as 32.1 mV dec⁻¹, and superior stability for long-time running with a commercial 20 wt% Pt/C. The excellent electrocatalytic properties are primarily by virtue of the highly specific surface area and porosity of carbon support, uniformly dispersed Ru active species, and rapid reaction kinetics of the interaction between Ru and O. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inorganic Materials in Nanotechnology: Fabrication, Characterization and Application)

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11 pages, 4788 KiB

Open AccessArticle

X-ray Photoemission Spectroscopy Study of Uniaxial Magnetic Anisotropy Induced in a Ni Layer Deposited on a LiNbO₃ Substrate

by Akinobu Yamaguchi, Takuo Ohkochi, Masaki Oura, Keisuke Yamada, Tsunemasa Saiki, Satoru Suzuki, Yuichi Utsumi and Aiko Nakao

Nanomaterials 2021, 11(4), 1024; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11041024 - 16 Apr 2021

Viewed by 2345

Abstract

The competition between magnetic shape anisotropy and the induced uniaxial magnetic anisotropy in the heterojunction between a ferromagnetic layer and a ferroelectric substrate serves to control magnetic domain structures as well as magnetization reversal characteristics. The uniaxial magnetic anisotropy, originating from the symmetry [...] Read more.

The competition between magnetic shape anisotropy and the induced uniaxial magnetic anisotropy in the heterojunction between a ferromagnetic layer and a ferroelectric substrate serves to control magnetic domain structures as well as magnetization reversal characteristics. The uniaxial magnetic anisotropy, originating from the symmetry breaking effect in the heterojunction, plays a significant role in modifying the characteristics of magnetization dynamics. Magnetoelastic phenomena are known to generate uniaxial magnetic anisotropy; however, the interfacial electronic states that may contribute to the uniaxial magnetic anisotropy have not yet been adequately investigated. Here, we report experimental evidence concerning the binding energy change in the ferromagnetic layer/ferroelectric substrate heterojunction using X-ray photoemission spectroscopy. The binding energy shifts, corresponding to the chemical shifts, reveal the binding states near the interface. Our results shed light on the origin of the uniaxial magnetic anisotropy induced from the heterojunction. This knowledge can provide a means for the simultaneous control of magnetism, mechanics, and electronics in a nano/microsystem consisting of ferromagnetic/ferroelectric materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inorganic Materials in Nanotechnology: Fabrication, Characterization and Application)

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16 pages, 4490 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nano-Magnetic NiFe₂O₄ and Its Photocatalytic Oxidation of Vanillyl Alcohol—Synthesis, Characterization, and Application in the Valorization of Lignin

by Afnan Al-Hunaiti, Asma Ghazzy, Nuha Sweidan, Qassem Mohaidat, Ibrahim Bsoul, Sami Mahmood and Tareq Hussein

Nanomaterials 2021, 11(4), 1010; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11041010 - 15 Apr 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3035

Abstract

Here, we report on a phyto-mediated bimetallic (NiFe₂O₄) preparation using a Boswellia carterii extract, which was characterized by XRD, FT-IR, TGA, electron microscopy, magnetic spectroscopy, and Mössbauer spectroscopy measurements. The prepared nano-catalysts were tested for oxidation of lignin monomer [...] Read more.

Here, we report on a phyto-mediated bimetallic (NiFe₂O₄) preparation using a Boswellia carterii extract, which was characterized by XRD, FT-IR, TGA, electron microscopy, magnetic spectroscopy, and Mössbauer spectroscopy measurements. The prepared nano-catalysts were tested for oxidation of lignin monomer molecules—vanillyl alcohol and cinnamyl alcohol. In comparison with previously reported methods, the nano NiFe₂O₄ catalysts showed high photocatalytic activity and selectivity, under visible light irradiation with a nitroxy radical initiator (2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidinyloxy or 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine 1-oxyl; TEMPO) at room temperature and aerobic conditions. The multifold advantages of the catalyst both in terms of reduced catalyst loading and ambient temperature conditions were manifested by higher conversion of the starting material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inorganic Materials in Nanotechnology: Fabrication, Characterization and Application)

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20 pages, 6969 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sonochemical Synthesis, Characterization and Optical Properties of Tb-Doped CdSe Nanoparticles: Synergistic Effect between Photocatalysis and Sonocatalysis

by Younes Hanifehpour, Narges Nozad Ashan, Ali Reza Amani-Ghadim and Sang Woo Joo

Nanomaterials 2021, 11(2), 378; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11020378 - 02 Feb 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1609

Abstract

In this study, Tb-doped CdSe nanoparticles with variable Tb³⁺ content were synthesized by a simple sonochemical technique. The synthesized nanoparticles were characterized by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and powder X-ray diffraction (XRD). The sono-photocatalytic activities of the as-prepared [...] Read more.

In this study, Tb-doped CdSe nanoparticles with variable Tb³⁺ content were synthesized by a simple sonochemical technique. The synthesized nanoparticles were characterized by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and powder X-ray diffraction (XRD). The sono-photocatalytic activities of the as-prepared specimens were assessed for the degradation of Reactive Black 5. The experimental results show that the sono-photocatalytic process (85.25%) produced a higher degradation percentage than the individual sono- (22%) and photocatalytic degradation (8%) processes for an initial dye concentration and Tb-doped CdSe dosage of 20 mg/L and 1 g/L, respectively. Response surface methodology (RSM) was utilized to assess model and optimize the impacts of the operational parameters, namely, the Tb³⁺ content, initial dye concentration, catalyst dosage, and time. The addition of benzoquinone results in remarkably inhibited degradation and the addition of ammonium oxalate reduced the removal percentage to 24%. Superoxide radicals and photogenerated holes were detected as the main oxidative species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inorganic Materials in Nanotechnology: Fabrication, Characterization and Application)

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