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19 pages, 2820 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Anthocyanin Content, Antioxidant Potential and Antimicrobial Activity of Black, Purple and Blue Colored Wheat Flour and Wheat-Grass Juice against Common Human Pathogens

by Natasha Sharma, Vandita Tiwari, Shreya Vats, Anita Kumari, Venkatesh Chunduri, Satveer Kaur, Payal Kapoor and Monika Garg

Molecules 2020, 25(24), 5785; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25245785 - 08 Dec 2020

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 6148

Abstract

The present study aimed to analyze the antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of anthocyanins extracted from colored wheat flour and wheat-grass juice against human pathogens. The total anthocyanin content and antioxidant potential in colored wheat flour and wheat-grass juice extracts were significantly higher than [...] Read more.

The present study aimed to analyze the antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of anthocyanins extracted from colored wheat flour and wheat-grass juice against human pathogens. The total anthocyanin content and antioxidant potential in colored wheat flour and wheat-grass juice extracts were significantly higher than white flour and wheat-grass juice extracts. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography showed the maximum number of anthocyanin peaks in black wheat, with delphinidin-3-o-galactoside chloride, delphinidin-3-o-glucoside chloride, and cyanindin-3-o-glucoside chloride as the major contributors. Among flour extracts, maximum zones of inhibition against Staphylococcus aureus (MTCC 1934), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MTCC 1434), Escherichia coli, and Candida albicans (MTCC 227) were produced by black flour extract, having the highest anthocyanin content. It exhibited a minimum microbicidal concentration (MMC) of 200 mg/mL against E. coli and C. albicans; and 100 and 150 mg/mL against S. aureus and P. aeruginosa, respectively. Black and purple flour extracts exhibited a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 50 mg/mL against S. aureus and P. aeruginosa. White flour extracts did not show MMC against E. coli and C. albicans. Among wheat-grass juice extracts, black wheat-grass was most effective and showed an MIC of 100–150 mg/mL against all pathogens. It exhibited an MMC of 200 mg/mL against S. aureus and P. aeruginosa. Hence, anthocyanin-rich colored wheat could be of nutraceutical importance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Isoflavonoids and Flavonoids: Their Isolation, Characterization, Synthesis and Health Benefits)

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13 pages, 1880 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Six Flavonoids from Smilax glabra Roxb

by Xinyu Zhao, Ruyi Chen, Yueyue Shi, Xiaoxi Zhang, Chongmei Tian and Daozong Xia

Molecules 2020, 25(22), 5295; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25225295 - 13 Nov 2020

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 3860

Abstract

This study aimed to isolate, prepare and identify the main flavonoids from a standardized Smilax glabra flavonoids extract (SGF) using preparative HPLC, MS, ¹H NMR and ¹³C NMR, determine the contents of these flavonoids using UPLC, then compare their pharmacological activities [...] Read more.

This study aimed to isolate, prepare and identify the main flavonoids from a standardized Smilax glabra flavonoids extract (SGF) using preparative HPLC, MS, ¹H NMR and ¹³C NMR, determine the contents of these flavonoids using UPLC, then compare their pharmacological activities in vitro. We obtained six flavonoids from SGF: astilbin (18.10%), neoastilbin (11.04%), isoastilbin (5.03%), neoisoastilbin (4.09%), engeletin (2.58%) and (−)-epicatechin (1.77%). The antioxidant activity of six flavonoids were evaluated by determining the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical and 2,2′-Azinobis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) diammonium salt (ABTS⁺) radical scavenging activity and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP). In addition, the anti-inflammatory activity of six flavonoids were evaluated by determining the production of cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6), nitric oxide (NO) using enzyme linked immunosorbent assay and the NF-κB p65 expression using Western blotting in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. The results showed that (−)-epicatechin, astilbin, neoastilbin, isoastilbin and neoisoastilbin had strong antioxidant activities, not only in DPPH and ABTS⁺ radicals scavenging capacities, but in FRAP system. Furthermore, all the six flavonoids could significantly inhibit the secretion of IL-1β, IL-6, NO (p < 0.01) and the protein expression of NF-κB p-p65 (p < 0.01) in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. This study preliminarily verified the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of six flavonoids in S. glabra. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Isoflavonoids and Flavonoids: Their Isolation, Characterization, Synthesis and Health Benefits)

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14 pages, 1464 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Biofortified Colored Wheats (Purple, Blue, Black) on Physicochemical, Antioxidant and Sensory Characteristics of Chapatti (Indian Flatbread)

by Anita Kumari, Saloni Sharma, Natasha Sharma, Venkatesh Chunduri, Payal Kapoor, Satveer Kaur, Ajay Goyal and Monika Garg

Molecules 2020, 25(21), 5071; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25215071 - 01 Nov 2020

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 7545

Abstract

Biofortified colored wheat (black, blue, and purple) is rich in anthocyanins and phenolic acid compounds that impart positive physiological effects in humans. A large proportion of wheat is consumed in the form of Chapatti in Asian countries. The effect of chapatti cooking on [...] Read more.

Biofortified colored wheat (black, blue, and purple) is rich in anthocyanins and phenolic acid compounds that impart positive physiological effects in humans. A large proportion of wheat is consumed in the form of Chapatti in Asian countries. The effect of chapatti cooking on the proximate composition, bioactive compounds (anthocyanins and phenolics), and antioxidant activities of these wheat varieties were checked in this study. Apart from acceptable sensory parameters, good taste, and soft texture of chapatti, biofortified colored wheat chapatti and flour had higher dietary fibers, protein content, and lower carbohydrate content. Higher soluble and insoluble phenolic compounds, anthocyanin content, and antioxidant activity were in the order of black > blue > purple > white. Chapatti making has reduced their antioxidant activity and anthocyanin content in comparison to flour. Moreover, the reduction in antioxidant activity is less as compared to the decrease in anthocyanin content. Our results suggest that colored wheat can be a better alternative to normal wheat for preparing chapatti as it would have additional health-promoting activities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Isoflavonoids and Flavonoids: Their Isolation, Characterization, Synthesis and Health Benefits)

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14 pages, 2353 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Overexpression of GbF3′5′H1 Provides a Potential to Improve the Content of Epicatechin and Gallocatechin

by Yaqiong Wu, Tongli Wang, Yue Xin, Guibin Wang and Li-An Xu

Molecules 2020, 25(20), 4836; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25204836 - 20 Oct 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2061

Abstract

The flavonoids in Ginkgo biloba L. (ginkgo) have important medicinal uses due to their antioxidant, antitumor, and blood circulation-promoting effects. However, the genetic mechanisms underlying flavonoid biosynthesis in ginkgo remain elusive. Flavonoid 3′, 5′-hydroxylase (F3′5′H) is an important enzyme in flavonoid [...] Read more.

The flavonoids in Ginkgo biloba L. (ginkgo) have important medicinal uses due to their antioxidant, antitumor, and blood circulation-promoting effects. However, the genetic mechanisms underlying flavonoid biosynthesis in ginkgo remain elusive. Flavonoid 3′, 5′-hydroxylase (F3′5′H) is an important enzyme in flavonoid synthesis. We detected a novel differentially expressed GbF3′5′H1 gene homologous to the F3′5′H enzyme involved in the flavonoid synthesis pathway through transcriptome sequencing. In this study, we characterized this gene, performed an expression analysis, and heterologously overexpressed GbF3′5′H1 in Populus. Our results showed that GbF3′5′H1 is abundant in the leaf and highly expressed during April. We also found four metabolites closely related to flavonoid biosynthesis. Importantly, the contents of 4′,5-dihydroxy-7-glucosyloxyflavanone, epicatechin, and gallocatechin were significantly higher in transgenic plants than in nontransgenic plants. Our findings revealed that the GbF3′5′H1 gene functions in the biosynthesis of flavonoid-related metabolites, suggesting that GbF3′5′H1 represents a prime candidate for future studies (e.g., gene-editing) aiming to optimize ginkgo flavonoid production, especially that of flavan-3-ols. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Isoflavonoids and Flavonoids: Their Isolation, Characterization, Synthesis and Health Benefits)

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20 pages, 2407 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phytochemical Evaluation of Tinctures and Essential Oil Obtained from Satureja montana Herb

by Nataliia Hudz, Ewa Makowicz, Mariia Shanaida, Marietta Białoń, Izabela Jasicka-Misiak, Oksana Yezerska, Liudmyla Svydenko and Piotr Paweł Wieczorek

Molecules 2020, 25(20), 4763; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25204763 - 16 Oct 2020

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 4363

Abstract

Winter Savory (Satureja montana L.) has been used in traditional medicine and as a spice or natural food preservative in the Mediterranean region for centuries. In this paper, some technological and analytical aspects of the S. montana tinctures development and an evaluation [...] Read more.

Winter Savory (Satureja montana L.) has been used in traditional medicine and as a spice or natural food preservative in the Mediterranean region for centuries. In this paper, some technological and analytical aspects of the S. montana tinctures development and an evaluation of the essential oil composition are provided. The total phenolic and flavonoid contents and phenolic compounds profile analyzed spectrophotometrically and by high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC), respectively, were evaluated in the developed tinctures. The results showed that the tinctures prepared from the S. montana herb by maceration or remaceration are rich in polyphenols, and there is an influence of the technological factors (particle size and extraction mode) on the total phenolic and flavonoid contents. Caffeic, rosmarinic, and chlorogenic acids, (–)-catechin and rutin were identified in the tinctures using the HPTLC method. p-Thymol (81.79%) revealed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was the predominant compound of the essential oil of this plant. Thus, the high contents of polyphenols and flavonoids in the developed tinctures and p-thymol among the volatile components of the S. montana essential oil could indicate the promising antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of these herbal preparations. The obtained results are a ground for the organization of the manufacture of the S. montana tincture and essential oil with the purpose of performing preclinical studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Isoflavonoids and Flavonoids: Their Isolation, Characterization, Synthesis and Health Benefits)

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13 pages, 1715 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparison of Solubility, Stability, and Bioavailability between Astilbin and Neoastilbin Isolated from Smilax glabra Rhizoma

by Dan Zheng, Yi-Ting Ruan, Zhong-Ping Yin and Qing-Feng Zhang

Molecules 2020, 25(20), 4728; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25204728 - 15 Oct 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2132

Abstract

Astilbin and neoastilbin are two flavonoid stereoisomers. In the present study, their solubility, stability, and bioavailability were compared in a rat. The results revealed that the water solubility of astilbin and neoastilbin was 132.72 μg/mL and 217.16 μg/mL, respectively. The oil–water distribution coefficient [...] Read more.

Astilbin and neoastilbin are two flavonoid stereoisomers. In the present study, their solubility, stability, and bioavailability were compared in a rat. The results revealed that the water solubility of astilbin and neoastilbin was 132.72 μg/mL and 217.16 μg/mL, respectively. The oil–water distribution coefficient (log P) of astilbin and neoastilbin in simulated gastric fluid (SGF) was 1.57 and 1.39, and in simulated intestinal fluid (SIF) was 1.09 and 0.98, respectively. In SIF, about 78.6% astilbin remained after 4 h of incubation at 37 °C, while this value was 88.3% for neoastilbin. Most of the degraded astilbin and neoastilbin were isomerized into their cis-trans-isomer, namely neoisoastilbin and isoastilbin, respectively, and the decomposed parts were rare. For bioavailability comparison in a rat, an HPLC method for trace amounts of astilbin and neoastilbin determination in plasma was developed, and the pretreatment of plasma was optimized. A pharmacokinetic study showed that the absolute bioavailability of astilbin and neoastilbin in a rat showed no significant difference with values of 0.30% and 0.28%, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Isoflavonoids and Flavonoids: Their Isolation, Characterization, Synthesis and Health Benefits)

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29 pages, 6971 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Antiproliferative Effects of Flavonoid MAO Inhibitors on Prostate Cancer Cells

by Najla O. Zarmouh, Samia S. Messeha, Nelly Mateeva, Madhavi Gangapuram, Kacy Flowers, Suresh V. K. Eyunni, Wang Zhang, Kinfe K. Redda and Karam F. A. Soliman

Molecules 2020, 25(9), 2257; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25092257 - 11 May 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3401

Abstract

Prostate cancer (PCa) patients commonly experience clinical depression. Recent reports indicated that monoamine oxidase-A (MAO-A) levels elevate in PCa, and antidepressant MAO-Is show anti-PCa properties. In this work, we aimed to find potential drugs for PCa patients suffering from depression by establishing novel [...] Read more.

Prostate cancer (PCa) patients commonly experience clinical depression. Recent reports indicated that monoamine oxidase-A (MAO-A) levels elevate in PCa, and antidepressant MAO-Is show anti-PCa properties. In this work, we aimed to find potential drugs for PCa patients suffering from depression by establishing novel anti-PCa reversible monoamine oxidase-A inhibitors (MAO-AIs/RIMA); with an endeavor to understand their mechanism of action. In this investigation, twenty synthesized flavonoid derivatives, defined as KKR compounds were screened for their inhibitory potentials against human MAO-A and MAO-B isozymes. Meanwhile, the cytotoxic and antiproliferative effects were determined in three human PCa cell lines. MAO-A-kinetics, molecular docking, SAR, cell morphology, and cell migration were investigated for the most potent compounds. The screened KKRs inhibited MAO-A more potently than MAO-B, and non-toxically inhibited LNCaP cell proliferation more than the DU145 and PC3 cell lines, respectively. The results showed that the three top MAO-AI KKRs compounds (KKR11, KKR20, and KKR7 (IC₅₀s 0.02–16 μM) overlapped with the top six antiproliferative KKRs against LNCaP (IC₅₀s ~9.4 μM). While KKR21 (MAO-AI) and KKR2A (MAO-I) were ineffective against the PCa cells. Furthermore, KKR21 and KKR11 inhibited MAO-A competitively (K_is ≤ 7.4 nM). Molecular docking of the two compounds predicted shared hydrophobic and distinctive hydrophilic interactions—between the KKR molecule and MAO-A amino acid residues—to be responsible for their reversibility. The combined results and SAR observations indicated that the presence of specific active groups—such as chlorine and hydroxyl groups—are essential in certain MAO-AIs with anti-PCa effects. Additionally, MAO-A inhibition was found to be associated more with anti-PCa property than MAO-B. Distinctively, KKR11 [(E)-3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1-(2-hydroxy-4,6-dimethoxyphenyl)prop-2-en-1-one] exhibited anti-metastatic effects on the DU145 cell line. The chlorine substitution groups might play vital roles in the KKR11 multiple actions. The obtained results indicated that the flavonoid derivative KKR11 could present a novel candidate for PCa patients with depression, through safe non-selective potent inhibition of MAOs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Isoflavonoids and Flavonoids: Their Isolation, Characterization, Synthesis and Health Benefits)

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Review

Jump to: Research

22 pages, 5228 KiB

Open AccessReview

Proanthocyanidins Should Be a Candidate in the Treatment of Cancer, Cardiovascular Diseases and Lipid Metabolic Disorder

by Tsz Ki Wang, Shaoting Xu, Shuang Li and Yunjian Zhang

Molecules 2020, 25(24), 5971; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25245971 - 16 Dec 2020

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3353

Abstract

The conventional view of using medicines as routine treatment of an intractable disease is being challenged in the face of extensive and growing evidence that flavonoids in foods, especially proanthocyanidins (PAs), can participate in tackling fatal diseases like cancer, cardiovascular and lipid metabolic [...] Read more.

The conventional view of using medicines as routine treatment of an intractable disease is being challenged in the face of extensive and growing evidence that flavonoids in foods, especially proanthocyanidins (PAs), can participate in tackling fatal diseases like cancer, cardiovascular and lipid metabolic diseases, both as a precautionary measure or as a dietary treatment. Although medical treatment with medicines will remain necessary in some cases, at least in the short term, PAs’ function as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory drugs, signal pathway regulators remain critical in many diseases. This review article demonstrates the physical and biological properties of PAs, summarizes the health benefits of PAs found by researchers previously, and shows the possibility and importance of being a dietary treatment substance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Isoflavonoids and Flavonoids: Their Isolation, Characterization, Synthesis and Health Benefits)

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20 pages, 3986 KiB

Open AccessReview

Radioprotective Effect of Flavonoids on Ionizing Radiation-Induced Brain Damage

by Qinqi Wang, Chenghao Xie, Shijun Xi, Feng Qian, Xiaochun Peng, Jiangrong Huang and Fengru Tang

Molecules 2020, 25(23), 5719; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25235719 - 03 Dec 2020

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 6584

Abstract

Patients receiving brain radiotherapy may suffer acute or chronic side effects. Ionizing radiation induces the production of intracellular reactive oxygen species and pro-inflammatory cytokines in the central nervous system, leading to brain damage. Complementary Chinese herbal medicine therapy may reduce radiotherapy-induced side effects. [...] Read more.

Patients receiving brain radiotherapy may suffer acute or chronic side effects. Ionizing radiation induces the production of intracellular reactive oxygen species and pro-inflammatory cytokines in the central nervous system, leading to brain damage. Complementary Chinese herbal medicine therapy may reduce radiotherapy-induced side effects. Flavonoids are a class of natural products which can be extracted from Chinese herbal medicine and have been shown to have neuroprotective and radioprotective properties. Flavonoids are effective antioxidants and can also inhibit regulatory enzymes or transcription factors important for controlling inflammatory mediators, affect oxidative stress through interaction with DNA and enhance genomic stability. In this paper, radiation-induced brain damage and the relevant molecular mechanism were summarized. The radio-neuro-protective effect of flavonoids, i.e., antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and maintaining genomic stability, were then reviewed. We concluded that flavonoids treatment may be a promising complementary therapy to prevent radiotherapy-induced brain pathophysiological changes and cognitive impairment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Isoflavonoids and Flavonoids: Their Isolation, Characterization, Synthesis and Health Benefits)

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15 pages, 1249 KiB

Open AccessReview

Flavonoids Regulate Inflammation and Oxidative Stress in Cancer

by Guangxing Li, Kaiyue Ding, Yanling Qiao, Liu Zhang, Luping Zheng, Taowen Pan and Lin Zhang

Molecules 2020, 25(23), 5628; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25235628 - 30 Nov 2020

Cited by 46 | Viewed by 3943

Abstract

Cancer is the second leading cause of death globally. Millions of persons die due to cancer each year. In the last two decades, the anticancer effects of natural flavonoids have become a hot topic in many laboratories. Meanwhile, flavonoids, of which over 8000 [...] Read more.

Cancer is the second leading cause of death globally. Millions of persons die due to cancer each year. In the last two decades, the anticancer effects of natural flavonoids have become a hot topic in many laboratories. Meanwhile, flavonoids, of which over 8000 molecules are known to date, are potential candidates for the discovery of anticancer drugs. The current review summarizes the major flavonoid classes of anticancer efficacy and discusses the potential anti-cancer mechanisms through inflammation and oxidative stress action, which were based on database and clinical studies within the past years. The results showed that flavonoids could regulate the inflammatory response and oxidative stress of tumor through some anti-inflammatory mechanisms such as NF-κB, so as to realize the anti-tumor effect. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Isoflavonoids and Flavonoids: Their Isolation, Characterization, Synthesis and Health Benefits)

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19 pages, 1459 KiB

Open AccessReview

Medicinal Potential of Isoflavonoids: Polyphenols That May Cure Diabetes

by Qamar Uddin Ahmed, Abdul Hasib Mohd Ali, Sayeed Mukhtar, Meshari A. Alsharif, Humaira Parveen, Awis Sukarni Mohmad Sabere, Mohamed Sufian Mohd. Nawi, Alfi Khatib, Mohammad Jamshed Siddiqui, Abdulrashid Umar and Alhassan Muhammad Alhassan

Molecules 2020, 25(23), 5491; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25235491 - 24 Nov 2020

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3677

Abstract

In recent years, there is emerging evidence that isoflavonoids, either dietary or obtained from traditional medicinal plants, could play an important role as a supplementary drug in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) due to their reported pronounced biological effects in [...] Read more.

In recent years, there is emerging evidence that isoflavonoids, either dietary or obtained from traditional medicinal plants, could play an important role as a supplementary drug in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) due to their reported pronounced biological effects in relation to multiple metabolic factors associated with diabetes. Hence, in this regard, we have comprehensively reviewed the potential biological effects of isoflavonoids, particularly biochanin A, genistein, daidzein, glycitein, and formononetin on metabolic disorders and long-term complications induced by T2DM in order to understand whether they can be future candidates as a safe antidiabetic agent. Based on in-depth in vitro and in vivo studies evaluations, isoflavonoids have been found to activate gene expression through the stimulation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) (α, γ), modulate carbohydrate metabolism, regulate hyperglycemia, induce dyslipidemia, lessen insulin resistance, and modify adipocyte differentiation and tissue metabolism. Moreover, these natural compounds have also been found to attenuate oxidative stress through the oxidative signaling process and inflammatory mechanism. Hence, isoflavonoids have been envisioned to be able to prevent and slow down the progression of long-term diabetes complications including cardiovascular disease, nephropathy, neuropathy, and retinopathy. Further thoroughgoing investigations in human clinical studies are strongly recommended to obtain the optimum and specific dose and regimen required for supplementation with isoflavonoids and derivatives in diabetic patients. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Isoflavonoids and Flavonoids: Their Isolation, Characterization, Synthesis and Health Benefits)

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27 pages, 2745 KiB

Open AccessReview

Naturally Occurring Flavonoids and Isoflavonoids and Their Microbial Transformation: A Review

by Jun-Fei Wang, Si-Si Liu, Zhi-Qiang Song, Tang-Chang Xu, Chuan-Sheng Liu, Ya-Ge Hou, Rong Huang and Shao-Hua Wu

Molecules 2020, 25(21), 5112; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25215112 - 03 Nov 2020

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 5375

Abstract

Flavonoids and isoflavonoids are polyphenolic secondary metabolites usually produced by plants adapting to changing ecological environments over a long period of time. Therefore, their biosynthesis pathways are considered as the most distinctive natural product pathway in plants. Seemingly, the flavonoids and isoflavones from [...] Read more.

Flavonoids and isoflavonoids are polyphenolic secondary metabolites usually produced by plants adapting to changing ecological environments over a long period of time. Therefore, their biosynthesis pathways are considered as the most distinctive natural product pathway in plants. Seemingly, the flavonoids and isoflavones from fungi and actinomycetes have been relatively overlooked. In this review, we summarized and classified the isoflavones and flavonoids derived from fungi and actinomycetes and described their biological activities. Increasing attention has been paid to bioactive substances derived from microorganism whole-cell biotransformation. Additionally, we described the utilization of isoflavones and flavonoids as substrates by fungi and actinomycetes for biotransformation through hydroxylation, methylation, halogenation, glycosylation, dehydrogenation, cyclisation, and hydrogenation reactions to obtain rare and highly active biofunctional derivatives. Overall, among all microorganisms, actinomycetes are the main producers of flavonoids. In our review, we also summarized the functional genes involved in flavonoid biosynthesis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Isoflavonoids and Flavonoids: Their Isolation, Characterization, Synthesis and Health Benefits)

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