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Nano-particulate Drug Delivery System: Current Status and Future Perspective

A special issue of Molecules (ISSN 1420-3049). This special issue belongs to the section "Medicinal Chemistry".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 January 2022) | Viewed by 54959

Special Issue Editors

Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China
Interests: construction and evaluation of novel drug delivery systems; extraction, isolation and formulation of natural products for medical use; solubilization techniques for insoluble active ingredients
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear colleagues,

Nanoparticles are a hot spot in the research field of drug delivery. However, the promise and prospects of nanoparticulate drug delivery systems are subject to controversy. Approval of more than 50 nanomedicine formulations supports a roaring success of nanoparticulate drug delivery systems. Newly approved formulations, e.g., Onivyde, Vyxeos, and Onpattro, imply a steady development of nanomedicine, as well as the birth of a new generation of nanomedicine. Nonetheless, a huge gap exists between the publications and the marketed products. Nanomedicine is disappointing due to the failure of clinical trials. Only 0.7% of the injected dose of nanoparticles is thought to accumulate in tumors. The discontinued funding for the Centers of Cancer Nanotechnology Excellence became the herald of “the beginning of the end of the nanomedicine hype”.

The development of nanoparticulate drug delivery systems has come to a crossroads. It is time to stop and consider where we were, where we are, and where we are going.

This Special Issue serves as a forum to discuss the current status and future perspective of nanoparticulate drug delivery systems. We invite review or original articles concerning but not limited to design strategies to overcome biological barriers, novel manufacturing techniques, delivery of·phytomedicine or biotech drugs, in vivo fate of nanoparticles, and factors affecting drug delivery.

Dr. Yi Lu
Prof. Dr. Yongtai Zhang
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • nanoparticles
  • drug delivery
  • design strategy
  • biological barriers
  • manufacturing
  • phytomedicine
  • biotech drugs
  • in vivo fate

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

11 pages, 2679 KiB  
Article
Cholesterol Sequestration from Caveolae/Lipid Rafts Enhances Cationic Liposome-Mediated Nucleic Acid Delivery into Endothelial Cells
by Santhosh Chandar Maddila, Chandrashekhar Voshavar, Porkizhi Arjunan, Rashmi Prakash Chowath, Hari Krishna Reddy Rachamalla, Balaji Balakrishnan, Poonkuzhali Balasubramanian, Rajkumar Banerjee and Srujan Marepally
Molecules 2021, 26(15), 4626; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26154626 - 30 Jul 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2125
Abstract
Delivering nucleic acids into the endothelium has great potential in treating vascular diseases. However, endothelial cells, which line the vasculature, are considered as sensitive in nature and hard to transfect. Low transfection efficacies in endothelial cells limit their potential therapeutic applications. Towards improving [...] Read more.
Delivering nucleic acids into the endothelium has great potential in treating vascular diseases. However, endothelial cells, which line the vasculature, are considered as sensitive in nature and hard to transfect. Low transfection efficacies in endothelial cells limit their potential therapeutic applications. Towards improving the transfection efficiency, we made an effort to understand the internalization of lipoplexes into the cells, which is the first and most critical step in nucleic acid transfections. In this study, we demonstrated that the transient modulation of caveolae/lipid rafts mediated endocytosis with the cholesterol-sequestrating agents, nystatin, filipin III, and siRNA against Cav-1, which significantly increased the transfection properties of cationic lipid-(2-hydroxy-N-methyl-N,N-bis(2-tetradecanamidoethyl)ethanaminium chloride), namely, amide liposomes in combination with 1,2-Dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (DOPE) (AD Liposomes) in liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (SK-Hep1). In particular, nystatin was found to be highly effective with 2–3-fold enhanced transfection efficacy when compared with amide liposomes in combination with Cholesterol (AC), by switching lipoplex internalization predominantly through clathrin-mediated endocytosis and macropinocytosis. Full article
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15 pages, 24043 KiB  
Article
Nanocrystal-Loaded Micelles for the Enhanced In Vivo Circulation of Docetaxel
by Meng Cheng, Qiaoming Liu, Tiantian Gan, Yuanying Fang, Pengfei Yue, Yongbing Sun, Yi Jin, Jianfang Feng and Liangxing Tu
Molecules 2021, 26(15), 4481; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26154481 - 24 Jul 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2382
Abstract
Prolonging in vivo circulation has proved to be an efficient route for enhancing the therapeutic effect of rapidly metabolized drugs. In this study, we aimed to construct a nanocrystal-loaded micelles delivery system to enhance the blood circulation of docetaxel (DOC). We employed high-pressure [...] Read more.
Prolonging in vivo circulation has proved to be an efficient route for enhancing the therapeutic effect of rapidly metabolized drugs. In this study, we aimed to construct a nanocrystal-loaded micelles delivery system to enhance the blood circulation of docetaxel (DOC). We employed high-pressure homogenization to prepare docetaxel nanocrystals (DOC(Nc)), and then produced docetaxel nanocrystal-loaded micelles (DOC(Nc)@mPEG-PLA) by a thin-film hydration method. The particle sizes of optimized DOC(Nc), docetaxel micelles (DOC@mPEG-PLA), and DOC(Nc)@mPEG-PLA were 168.4, 36.3, and 72.5 nm, respectively. The crystallinity of docetaxel was decreased after transforming it into nanocrystals, and the crystalline state of docetaxel in micelles was amorphous. The constructed DOC(Nc)@mPEG-PLA showed good stability as its particle size showed no significant change in 7 days. Despite their rapid dissolution, docetaxel nanocrystals exhibited higher bioavailability. The micelles prolonged the retention time of docetaxel in the circulation system of rats, and DOC(Nc)@mPEG-PLA exhibited the highest retention time and bioavailability. These results reveal that constructing nanocrystal-loaded micelles may be a promising way to enhance the in vivo circulation and bioavailability of rapidly metabolized drugs such as docetaxel. Full article
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23 pages, 23799 KiB  
Article
Fabrication of Alginate-Based O/W Nanoemulsions for Transdermal Drug Delivery of Lidocaine: Influence of the Oil Phase and Surfactant
by Omar Sarheed, Manar Dibi, Kanteti V. R. N. S. Ramesh and Markus Drechsler
Molecules 2021, 26(9), 2556; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26092556 - 27 Apr 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2424
Abstract
Transdermal drug delivery of lidocaine is a good choice for local anesthetic delivery. Microemulsions have shown great effectiveness for the transdermal transport of lidocaine. Oil-in-water nanoemulsions are particularly suitable for encapsulation of lipophilic molecules because of their ability to form stable and transparent [...] Read more.
Transdermal drug delivery of lidocaine is a good choice for local anesthetic delivery. Microemulsions have shown great effectiveness for the transdermal transport of lidocaine. Oil-in-water nanoemulsions are particularly suitable for encapsulation of lipophilic molecules because of their ability to form stable and transparent delivery systems with good skin permeation. However, fabrication of nanoemulsions containing lidocaine to provide an extended local anesthetic effect is challenging. Hence, the aim of this study was to address this issue by employing alginate-based o/w nanocarriers using nanoemulsion template that is prepared by combined approaches of ultrasound and phase inversion temperature (PIT). In this study, the influence of system composition such as oil type, oil and surfactant concentration on the particle size, in vitro release and skin permeation of lidocaine nanoemulsions was investigated. Structural characterization of lidocaine nanoemulsions as a function of water dilution was done using DSC. Nanoemulsions with small droplet diameters (d < 150 nm) were obtained as demonstrated by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and cryo-TEM. These nanoemulsions were also able to release 90% of their content within 24-h through PDMS and pig skin and able to the drug release over a 48-h. This extended-release profile is highly favorable in transdermal drug delivery and shows the great potential of this nanoemulsion as delivery system. Full article
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16 pages, 4395 KiB  
Article
Formulation and Evaluation of a Clove Oil-Encapsulated Nanofiber Formulation for Effective Wound-Healing
by Misbah Hameed, Akhtar Rasul, Muhammad Khurram Waqas, Malik Saadullah, Nosheen Aslam, Ghulam Abbas, Sumera Latif, Hafsa Afzal, Sana Inam and Pervaiz Akhtar Shah
Molecules 2021, 26(9), 2491; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26092491 - 24 Apr 2021
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3603
Abstract
Wound-healing is complicated process that is affected by many factors, especially bacterial infiltration at the site and not only the need for the regeneration of damaged tissues but also the requirement for antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic activity at the injured site. The objective [...] Read more.
Wound-healing is complicated process that is affected by many factors, especially bacterial infiltration at the site and not only the need for the regeneration of damaged tissues but also the requirement for antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic activity at the injured site. The objective of the present study was to develop and evaluate the natural essential oil-containing nanofiber (NF) mat with enhanced antibacterial activity, regenerative, non-cytotoxic, and wound-healing potential. Clove essential oil (CEO) encapsulated in chitosan and poly-ethylene oxide (PEO) polymers to form NFs and their morphology was analyzed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) that confirmed the finest NFs prepared with a diameter of 154 ± 35 nm. The successful incorporation of CEO was characterized by Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray diffractometry (XRD). The 87.6 ± 13.1% encapsulation efficiency and 8.9 ± 0.98% loading of CEO was observed. A total of 79% release of CEO was observed in acidic pH 5.5 with 117% high degree of swelling. The prepared NF mat showed good antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli and non-cytotoxic behavior against human fibroblast cell lines and showed good wound-healing potential. Full article
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15 pages, 2676 KiB  
Article
Rapid Screening and Identification of Antitumor Ingredients from the Mangrove Endophytic Fungus Using an Enzyme-Immobilized Magnetic Nanoparticulate System
by Nan Wei, Jun Zhao, Guimei Wu, Wenjuan Cao, Pei Luo, Zhifeng Zhang, Gang Chen and Lu Wen
Molecules 2021, 26(8), 2255; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26082255 - 13 Apr 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2486
Abstract
As a consequence of recent progression in biomedicine and nanotechnology, nanoparticle-based systems have evolved as a new method with extensive applications in responsive therapy, multimodal imaging, drug delivery and natural product separation. Meanwhile, the magnetic nanoparticulate system has aroused great interest for separation [...] Read more.
As a consequence of recent progression in biomedicine and nanotechnology, nanoparticle-based systems have evolved as a new method with extensive applications in responsive therapy, multimodal imaging, drug delivery and natural product separation. Meanwhile, the magnetic nanoparticulate system has aroused great interest for separation and purification because of its excellent magnetic properties. Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) is a highly expressed regulator to promote the growth of various cancers and is an ideal target to treat cancers. In this study, a novel strategy based on ligand–receptor interactions to discover novel PLA2 inhibitors was established, in which PLA2-functionalized Fe3O4@PLGA-PEG-NH2 magnetic nanoparticles were used as a supporting material combined with high-performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry, aiming to accelerate the discovery of novel PLA2 inhibitors from natural sources such as mangrove endophytic fungi. Under the optimized ligand fishing conditions, six target compounds were ultimately fished and identified to be cyclic peptides (13) and sterols (46), which compounds 1, 2 and 46 have well-documented cytotoxicities. Compound 3 exerted better inhibitory effect on A549 cells by experiment. In conclusion, PLA2-functionalized Fe3O4@PLGA-PEG-NH2 magnetic nanoparticles-based ligand fishing provided a feasible, selective and effective platform for the efficient screening and identification of antitumor components from natural products. Full article
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14 pages, 1653 KiB  
Article
Preparation of Co-Processed Excipients for Controlled-Release of Drugs Assembled with Solid Lipid Nanoparticles and Direct Compression Materials
by Luis Eduardo Serrano-Mora, María L. Zambrano-Zaragoza, Néstor Mendoza-Muñoz, Gerardo Leyva-Gómez, Zaida Urbán-Morlán and David Quintanar-Guerrero
Molecules 2021, 26(7), 2093; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26072093 - 06 Apr 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3465
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to develop a novel, directly compressible, co-processed excipient capable of providing a controlled-release drug system for the pharmaceutical industry. A co-processed powder was formed by adsorption of solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) as a controlled-release film onto a [...] Read more.
The purpose of the study was to develop a novel, directly compressible, co-processed excipient capable of providing a controlled-release drug system for the pharmaceutical industry. A co-processed powder was formed by adsorption of solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) as a controlled-release film onto a functional excipient, in this case, dicalcium phosphate dihydrate (DPD), for direct compression (Di-Tab®). The co-processed excipient has advantages: easy to implement; solvent-free; industrial scaling-up; good rheological and compressibility properties; and the capability to form an inert platform. Six different batches of Di-Tab®:SLN weight ratios were prepared (4:0.6, 3:0.6, 2:0.6, 1:0.6, 0.5:0.6, and 0.25:0.6). BCS class III ranitidine hydrochloride was selected as a drug model to evaluate the mixture’s controlled-release capabilities. The co-processed excipients were characterized in terms of powder rheology and dissolution rate. The best Di-Tab®:SLN ratio proved to be 2:0.6, as it showed high functionality with good flow and compressibility properties (Carr Index = 16 ± 1, Hausner Index = 1.19 ± 0.04). This ratio could control release for up to 8 h, so it fits the ideal profile calculated based on biopharmaceutical data. The compressed systems obtained using this powder mixture behave as a matrix platform in which Fickian diffusion governs the release. The Higuchi model can explain their behavior. Full article
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18 pages, 7061 KiB  
Article
A Novel Solid Nanocrystals Self-Stabilized Pickering Emulsion Prepared by Spray-Drying with Hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin as Carriers
by Jifen Zhang, Yanhua Wang, Jirui Wang and Tao Yi
Molecules 2021, 26(6), 1809; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26061809 - 23 Mar 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2638
Abstract
A drug nanocrystals self-stabilized Pickering emulsion (NSSPE) with a unique composition and microstructure has been proven to significantly increase the bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs. This study aimed to develop a new solid NSSPE of puerarin preserving the original microstructure of NSSPE by [...] Read more.
A drug nanocrystals self-stabilized Pickering emulsion (NSSPE) with a unique composition and microstructure has been proven to significantly increase the bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs. This study aimed to develop a new solid NSSPE of puerarin preserving the original microstructure of NSSPE by spray-drying. A series of water-soluble solid carriers were compared and then Box-Behnken design was used to optimize the parameters of spray-drying. The drug release and stability of the optimized solid NSSPE in vitro were also investigated. The results showed that hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD), rather than solid carriers commonly used in solidification of traditional Pickering emulsions, was suitable for the solid NSSPE to retain the original appearance and size of emulsion droplets after reconstitution. The amount of HP-β-CD had more influences on the solid NSSPE than the feed rate and the inlet air temperature. Fluorescence microscopy, confocal laser scanning microscopy and scanning electron microscopy showed that the reconstituted emulsion of the solid NSSPE prepared with HP-β-CD had the same core-shell structure with a core of oil and a shell of puerarin nanocrystals as the liquid NSSPE. The particle size of puerarin nanocrystal sand interfacial adsorption rate also did not change significantly. The cumulative amount of released puerarin from the solid NSSPE had no significant difference compared with the liquid NSSPE, which were both significantly higher than that of puerarin crude material. The solid NSSPE was stable for 3 months under the accelerated condition of 75% relative humidity and 40 °C. Thus, it is possible todevelop the solid NSSPE preserving the unique microstructure and the superior properties in vitro of the liquid NSSPE for poorly soluble drugs. Full article
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16 pages, 3428 KiB  
Article
The Impacts of Crystalline Structure and Different Surface Functional Groups on Drug Release and the Osseointegration Process of Nanostructured TiO2
by Anna Pawlik, Magdalena Jarosz, Robert P. Socha and Grzegorz D. Sulka
Molecules 2021, 26(6), 1723; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26061723 - 19 Mar 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1838
Abstract
In implantable materials, surface topography and chemistry are the most important in the effective osseointegration and interaction with drug molecules. Therefore, structural and surface modifications of nanostructured titanium dioxide (TiO2) layers are reported in the present work. In particular, the modification [...] Read more.
In implantable materials, surface topography and chemistry are the most important in the effective osseointegration and interaction with drug molecules. Therefore, structural and surface modifications of nanostructured titanium dioxide (TiO2) layers are reported in the present work. In particular, the modification of annealed TiO2 samples with —OH groups and silane derivatives, confirmed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, is shown. Moreover, the ibuprofen release process was studied regarding the desorption-desorption-diffusion (DDD) kinetic model. The results proved that the most significant impact on the release profile is annealing, and further surface modifications did not change its kinetics. Additionally, the cell adhesion and proliferation were examined based on the MTS test and immunofluorescent staining. The obtained data showed that the proposed changes in the surface chemistry enhance the samples’ hydrophilicity. Moreover, improvements in the adhesion and proliferation of the MG-63 cells were observed. Full article
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18 pages, 4904 KiB  
Article
Improved Dermal and Transdermal Delivery of Curcumin with SmartFilms and Nanocrystals
by Ralph W. Eckert, Sabrina Wiemann and Cornelia M. Keck
Molecules 2021, 26(6), 1633; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26061633 - 15 Mar 2021
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 3101
Abstract
Poor aqueous solubility of active compounds is a major issue in today’s drug delivery. In this study the smartFilm-technology was exploited to improve the dermal penetration efficacy of a poorly soluble active compound (curcumin). Results were compared to the dermal penetration efficacy of [...] Read more.
Poor aqueous solubility of active compounds is a major issue in today’s drug delivery. In this study the smartFilm-technology was exploited to improve the dermal penetration efficacy of a poorly soluble active compound (curcumin). Results were compared to the dermal penetration efficacy of curcumin from curcumin bulk suspensions and nanocrystals, respectively. The smartFilms enabled an effective dermal and transdermal penetration of curcumin, whereas curcumin bulk- and nanosuspensions were less efficient when the curcumin content was similar to the curcumin content in the smartFilms. Interestingly, it was found that increasing numbers of curcumin particles within the suspensions increased the passive dermal penetration of curcumin. The effect is caused by an aqueous meniscus that is created between particle and skin if the dispersion medium evaporates. The connecting liquid meniscus causes a local swelling of the stratum corneum and maintains a high local concentration gradient between drug particles and skin. Thus, leading to a high local passive dermal penetration of curcumin. The findings suggest a new dermal penetration mechanism for active compounds from nano-particulate drug delivery systems, which can be the base for the development of topical drug products with improved penetration efficacy in the future. Full article
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16 pages, 2972 KiB  
Article
Reversal of Multidrug Resistance by Apolipoprotein A1-Modified Doxorubicin Liposome for Breast Cancer Treatment
by Duopeng An, Xiaochen Yu, Lijing Jiang, Rui Wang, Peng He, Nanye Chen, Xiaohan Guo, Xiang Li and Meiqing Feng
Molecules 2021, 26(5), 1280; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26051280 - 26 Feb 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2556
Abstract
Multidrug resistance (MDR) remains a major problem in cancer therapy and is characterized by the overexpression of p-glycoprotein (P-gp) efflux pump, upregulation of anti-apoptotic proteins or downregulation of pro-apoptotic proteins. In this study, an Apolipoprotein A1 (ApoA1)-modified cationic liposome containing a synthetic cationic [...] Read more.
Multidrug resistance (MDR) remains a major problem in cancer therapy and is characterized by the overexpression of p-glycoprotein (P-gp) efflux pump, upregulation of anti-apoptotic proteins or downregulation of pro-apoptotic proteins. In this study, an Apolipoprotein A1 (ApoA1)-modified cationic liposome containing a synthetic cationic lipid and cholesterol was developed for the delivery of a small-molecule chemotherapeutic drug, doxorubicin (Dox) to treat MDR tumor. The liposome-modified by ApoA1 was found to promote drug uptake and elicit better therapeutic effects than free Dox and liposome in MCF-7/ADR cells. Further, loading Dox into the present ApoA1-liposome systems enabled a burst release at the tumor location, resulting in enhanced anti-tumor effects and reduced off-target effects. More importantly, ApoA1-lip/Dox caused fewer adverse effects on cardiac function and other organs in 4T1 subcutaneous xenograft models. These features indicate that the designed liposomes represent a promising strategy for the reversal of MDR in cancer treatment. Full article
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23 pages, 7440 KiB  
Article
Simulation of the In Vivo Fate of Polymeric Nanoparticles Traced by Environment-Responsive Near-Infrared Dye: A Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Modelling Approach
by Lei Li, Haisheng He, Sifang Jiang, Jianping Qi, Yi Lu, Ning Ding, Hai-Shu Lin, Wei Wu and Xiaoqiang Xiang
Molecules 2021, 26(5), 1271; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26051271 - 26 Feb 2021
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 2327
Abstract
The application of physiologically based pharmacokinetic models to nanoparticles is still very restricted and challenging, owing to the complicated in vivo transport mechanisms involving nanoparticles, including phagocytosis, enhanced permeability and retention effects, cellular recognition, and internalisation, enzymatic degradation, lymphatic transport, and changes in [...] Read more.
The application of physiologically based pharmacokinetic models to nanoparticles is still very restricted and challenging, owing to the complicated in vivo transport mechanisms involving nanoparticles, including phagocytosis, enhanced permeability and retention effects, cellular recognition, and internalisation, enzymatic degradation, lymphatic transport, and changes in physical properties. In our study, five nanoparticle formulations were synthesised using polycaprolactone as a framework material and methoxy poly (ethylene glycol)-poly(ε-caprolactone) as a long-circulating decorating material, as well as types of environmentally responsive near-infrared aza-boron-dipyrromethene dyes. According to quantification data and direct visualisation involving specific organs, a phagocytosis physiologically based pharmacokinetic model was developed to describe the dynamics of nanoparticles within and between organs in mice, considering cellular mechanisms involving phagocytosis and enhanced permeability and retention effects. Our results offer a better understanding of the in vivo fate of polymeric nanoparticles. Full article
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Review

Jump to: Research

23 pages, 3083 KiB  
Review
A Review of Liposomes as a Drug Delivery System: Current Status of Approved Products, Regulatory Environments, and Future Perspectives
by Peng Liu, Guiliang Chen and Jingchen Zhang
Molecules 2022, 27(4), 1372; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27041372 - 17 Feb 2022
Cited by 286 | Viewed by 19974
Abstract
Liposomes have been considered promising and versatile drug vesicles. Compared with traditional drug delivery systems, liposomes exhibit better properties, including site-targeting, sustained or controlled release, protection of drugs from degradation and clearance, superior therapeutic effects, and lower toxic side effects. Given these merits, [...] Read more.
Liposomes have been considered promising and versatile drug vesicles. Compared with traditional drug delivery systems, liposomes exhibit better properties, including site-targeting, sustained or controlled release, protection of drugs from degradation and clearance, superior therapeutic effects, and lower toxic side effects. Given these merits, several liposomal drug products have been successfully approved and used in clinics over the last couple of decades. In this review, the liposomal drug products approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and European Medicines Agency (EMA) are discussed. Based on the published approval package in the FDA and European public assessment report (EPAR) in EMA, the critical chemistry information and mature pharmaceutical technologies applied in the marketed liposomal products, including the lipid excipient, manufacturing methods, nanosizing technique, drug loading methods, as well as critical quality attributions (CQAs) of products, are introduced. Additionally, the current regulatory guidance and future perspectives related to liposomal products are summarized. This knowledge can be used for research and development of the liposomal drug candidates under various pipelines, including the laboratory bench, pilot plant, and commercial manufacturing. Full article
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20 pages, 1123 KiB  
Review
Insights into Terminal Sterilization Processes of Nanoparticles for Biomedical Applications
by Sergio A. Bernal-Chávez, María Luisa Del Prado-Audelo, Isaac H. Caballero-Florán, David M. Giraldo-Gomez, Gabriela Figueroa-Gonzalez, Octavio D. Reyes-Hernandez, Manuel González-Del Carmen, Maykel González-Torres, Hernán Cortés and Gerardo Leyva-Gómez
Molecules 2021, 26(7), 2068; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26072068 - 03 Apr 2021
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4496
Abstract
Nanoparticles possess a huge potential to be employed in numerous biomedical purposes; their applications may include drug delivery systems, gene therapy, and tissue engineering. However, the in vivo use in biomedical applications requires that nanoparticles exhibit sterility. Thus, diverse sterilization techniques have been [...] Read more.
Nanoparticles possess a huge potential to be employed in numerous biomedical purposes; their applications may include drug delivery systems, gene therapy, and tissue engineering. However, the in vivo use in biomedical applications requires that nanoparticles exhibit sterility. Thus, diverse sterilization techniques have been developed to remove or destroy microbial contamination. The main sterilization methods include sterile filtration, autoclaving, ionizing radiation, and nonionizing radiation. Nonetheless, the sterilization processes can alter the stability, zeta potential, average particle size, and polydispersity index of diverse types of nanoparticles, depending on their composition. Thus, these methods may produce unwanted effects on the nanoparticles’ characteristics, affecting their safety and efficacy. Moreover, each sterilization method possesses advantages and drawbacks; thus, the suitable method’s choice depends on diverse factors such as the formulation’s characteristics, batch volume, available methods, and desired application. In this article, we describe the current sterilization methods of nanoparticles. Moreover, we discuss the advantages and drawbacks of these methods, pointing out the changes in nanoparticles’ biological and physicochemical characteristics after sterilization. Our main objective was to offer a comprehensive overview of terminal sterilization processes of nanoparticles for biomedical applications. Full article
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