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New Insights into the Occurrence and Toxic Effects of Bisphenol Residues in the Environment, Food, and Health-Related Matrices

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A special issue of Molecules (ISSN 1420-3049). This special issue belongs to the section "Applied Chemistry".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 January 2023) | Viewed by 10715

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Prof. Ester Heath

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Guest Editor

Department of Environmental Sciences, Jožef Stefan Institute, International Postgraduate School Jožef Stefan, Jamova Cesta 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Interests: contaminants of emerging concern; pharmaceutical; personal care products; industrial chemicals; treatment; wastewater; environment; food; health

Dr. Ana Kovačič

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Co-Guest Editor

Department of Environmental Sciences, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova Cesta 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Interests: environmental chemistry; analytical chemistry; contaminants of emerging concern; treatment; wastewater; food; health

Dr. Bojana Žegura

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Co-Guest Editor

Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, Večna pot 111, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Interests: cyanobacterial toxins; genetic toxicology; in vitro; advanced 3D cell models; toxicogenomics; ecotoxicology; combined exposures
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a synthetic high-production monomer used to produce polycarbonate plastic and polymeric coatings (epoxy resins) for a range of industrial applications and consumer goods such as food-contact materials, thermal paper, electronics, water supply lines, dental sealants and composites. However, its xenoestrogenicity has raised concern about its safety in food-contact applications, which has led to stringent regulations on its production and use. For example, in 2011, the European Union prohibited BPA’s use in infant feeding bottles and set a specific migration limit for plastic food contact materials. Despite these rules, many scientific studies have shown its ubiquitous distribution in food and the environment. Although the focus has been mainly on BPA, more than twenty structurally related compounds, referred to collectively as bisphenols, are known. Not surprisingly, many of them have similar, and in some cases higher, endocrine-disrupting and genotoxic effects in comparison to BPA. Therefore, to put in place appropriate safety measures for protecting human and animal health and the environment throughout, knowledge on their occurrence, fate, and effects is much needed. For this reason, we have put together a Special Issue addressing bisphenol residues and their metabolites and transformation products in the environment, food and health-related matrices.

Prof. Ester Heath
Guest Editor

Dr. Ana Kovačič
Dr. Bojana Žegura
Co-Guest Editors

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Keywords

contaminants of emerging concern
bisphenol
occurrence
environment
wastewater
food
health
treatment
toxicity

Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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16 pages, 2224 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Combined Toxic Effects of BPA and Its Two Analogues BPAP and BPC in a 3D HepG2 Cell Model

by Martina Štampar, Tim Ravnjak, Ana-Marija Domijan and Bojana Žegura

Molecules 2023, 28(7), 3085; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28073085 - 30 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1927

Abstract

Bisphenol A (BPA) is one of the most commonly used substances in the manufacture of various everyday products. Growing concerns about its hazardous properties, including endocrine disruption and genotoxicity, have led to its gradual replacement by presumably safer analogues in manufacturing plastics. The widespread use of BPA and, more recently, its analogues has increased their residues in the environment. However, our knowledge of their toxicological profiles is limited and their combined effects are unknown. In the present study, we investigated the toxic effects caused by single bisphenols and by the combined exposure of BPA and its two analogues, BPAP and BPC, after short (24-h) and prolonged (96-h) exposure in HepG2 spheroids. The results showed that BPA did not reduce cell viability in HepG2 spheroids after 24-h exposure. In contrast, BPAP and BPC affected cell viability in HepG2 spheroids. Both binary mixtures (BPA/BPAP and BPA/BPC) decreased cell viability in a dose-dependent manner, but the significant difference was only observed for the combination of BPA/BPC (both at 40 µM). After 96-h exposure, none of the BPs studied affected cell viability in HepG2 spheroids. Only the combination of BPA/BPAP decreased cell viability in a dose-dependent manner that was significant for the combination of 4 µM BPA and 4 µM BPAP. None of the BPs and their binary mixtures studied affected the surface area and growth of spheroids as measured by planimetry. In addition, all BPs and their binary mixtures studied triggered oxidative stress, as measured by the production of reactive oxygen species and malondialdehyde, at both exposure times. Overall, the results suggest that it is important to study the effects of BPs as single compounds. It is even more important to study the effects of combined exposures, as the combined effects may differ from those induced by single compounds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into the Occurrence and Toxic Effects of Bisphenol Residues in the Environment, Food, and Health-Related Matrices)

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15 pages, 2184 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phytotoxicity of Bisphenol A to Allium cepa Root Cells Is Mediated through Growth Hormone Gibberellic Acid and Reactive Oxygen Species

by Valerija Vujčić Bok, Marko Gerić, Goran Gajski, Sanja Gagić and Ana-Marija Domijan

Molecules 2023, 28(5), 2046; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28052046 - 22 Feb 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1447

Abstract

The aim of this study was to test the phytotoxicity and mode of action of bisphenol A (BPA) on Allium cepa using a multibiomarker approach. A. cepa roots were exposed to BPA in concentration range 0–50 mg L⁻¹ for 3 days. BPA even in the lowest applied concentration (1 mg L⁻¹) reduced root length, root fresh weight, and mitotic index. Additionally, the lowest BPA concentration (1 mg L⁻¹) decreased the level of gibberellic acid (GA₃) in root cells. BPA at concentration 5 mg L⁻¹ increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that was followed by increase in oxidative damage to cells’ lipids and proteins and activity of enzyme superoxide dismutase. BPA in higher concentrations (25 and 50 mg L⁻¹) induced genome damage detected as an increase in micronucleus (MNs) and nuclear buds (NBUDs). BPA at >25 mg L⁻¹ induced synthesis of phytochemicals. Results of this study using multibiomarker approach indicate that BPA is phytotoxic to A. cepa roots and has shown genotoxic potential to plants, thus its presence in the environment should be monitored. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into the Occurrence and Toxic Effects of Bisphenol Residues in the Environment, Food, and Health-Related Matrices)

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15 pages, 2438 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Assessment of Mass Flows, Removal and Environmental Emissions of Bisphenols in a Sequencing Batch Reactor Wastewater Treatment Plant

by Anja Vehar, Ana Kovačič, Nadja Hvala, David Škufca, Marjetka Levstek, Marjetka Stražar, Andreja Žgajnar Gotvajn and Ester Heath

Molecules 2022, 27(23), 8634; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27238634 - 06 Dec 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1172

Abstract

This study analyzed 16 bisphenols (BPs) in wastewater and sludge samples collected from different stages at a municipal wastewater treatment plant based on sequencing batch reactor technology. It also describes developing an analytical method for determining BPs in the solid phase of activated sludge based on solid-phase extraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Obtained concentrations are converted into mass flows, and the biodegradation of BPs and adsorption to primary and secondary sludge are determined. Ten of the sixteen BPs were present in the influent with concentrations up to 434 ng L⁻¹ (BPS). Only five BPs with concentrations up to 79 ng L⁻¹ (BPA) were determined in the plant effluent, accounting for 8 % of the total BPs determined in the influent. Eleven per cent of the total BPs were adsorbed on primary and secondary sludge. Overall, BPs biodegradation efficiency was 81%. The highest daily emissions via effluent release (1.48 g day⁻¹) and sludge disposal (4.63 g day⁻¹) were for BPA, while total emissions reached 2 g day⁻¹ via effluent and 6 g day⁻¹ via sludge disposal. The data show that the concentrations of BPs in sludge are not negligible, and their environmental emissions should be monitored and further studied. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into the Occurrence and Toxic Effects of Bisphenol Residues in the Environment, Food, and Health-Related Matrices)

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17 pages, 2544 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determination of Apoptotic Mechanism of Action of Tetrabromobisphenol A and Tetrabromobisphenol S in Human Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells: A Comparative Study

by Anna Barańska, Bożena Bukowska and Jaromir Michałowicz

Molecules 2022, 27(18), 6052; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27186052 - 16 Sep 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1660

Abstract

Background: Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) is the most commonly used brominated flame retardant (BFR) in the industry. TBBPA has been determined in environmental samples, food, tap water, dust as well as outdoor and indoor air and in the human body. Studies have also shown the toxic potential of this substance. In search of a better and less toxic BFR, tetrabromobisphenol S (TBBPS) has been developed in order to replace TBBPA in the industry. There is a lack of data on the toxic effects of TBBPS, while no study has explored apoptotic mechanism of action of TBBPA and TBBPS in human leukocytes. Methods: The cells were separated from leucocyte-platelet buffy coat and were incubated with studied compounds in concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 50 µg/mL for 24 h. In order to explore the apoptotic mechanism of action of tested BFRs, phosphatidylserine externalization at cellular membrane (the number of apoptotic cells), cytosolic calcium ion and transmembrane mitochondrial potential levels, caspase-8, -9 and -3 activation, as well as PARP-1 cleavage, DNA fragmentation and chromatin condensation in PBMCs were determined. Results: TBBPA and TBBPS triggered apoptosis in human PBMCs as they changed all tested parameters in the incubated cells. It was also observed that the mitochondrial pathway was mainly involved in the apoptotic action of studied compounds. Conclusions: It was found that TBBPS, and more strongly TBBPA, triggered apoptosis in human PBMCs. Generally, the mitochondrial pathway was involved in the apoptotic action of tested compounds; nevertheless, TBBPS more strongly than TBBPA caused intrinsic pathway activation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into the Occurrence and Toxic Effects of Bisphenol Residues in the Environment, Food, and Health-Related Matrices)

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14 pages, 2028 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bisphenol A Impairs Lipid Remodeling Accompanying Cell Differentiation in the Oligodendroglial Cell Line Oli-Neu

by Vanessa Naffaa, Isabelle Hochar, Chéryane Lama, Romain Magny, Anne Regazzetti, Pierre Gressens, Olivier Laprévote, Nicolas Auzeil and Anne-Laure Schang

Molecules 2022, 27(7), 2274; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27072274 - 31 Mar 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2046

Abstract

In the central nervous system, the process of myelination involves oligodendrocytes that wrap myelin around axons. Myelin sheaths are mainly composed of lipids and ensure efficient conduction of action potentials. Oligodendrocyte differentiation is an essential preliminary step to myelination which, in turn, is a key event of neurodevelopment. Bisphenol A (BPA), a ubiquitous endocrine disruptor, is suspected to disrupt this developmental process and may, thus, contribute to several neurodevelopmental disorders. In this study, we assessed the effect of BPA on oligodendrocyte differentiation through a comprehensive analysis of cell lipidome by UHPLC-HRMS. For this purpose, we exposed the oligodendroglial cell line Oli-neu to several BPA concentrations for 72 h of proliferation and another 72 h of differentiation. In unexposed cells, significant changes occurred in lipid distribution during Oli-neu differentiation, including an increase in characteristic myelin lipids, sulfatides, and ethanolamine plasmalogens, and a marked remodeling of phospholipid subclasses and fatty acid contents. Moreover, BPA induced a decrease in sulfatide and phosphatidylinositol plasmalogen contents and modified monounsaturated/polyunsaturated fatty acid relative contents in phospholipids. These effects counteracted the lipid remodeling accompanying differentiation and were confirmed by gene expression changes. Altogether, our results suggest that BPA disrupts lipid remodeling accompanying early oligodendrocyte differentiation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into the Occurrence and Toxic Effects of Bisphenol Residues in the Environment, Food, and Health-Related Matrices)

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Review

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12 pages, 1416 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recording from an Identified Neuron Efficiently Reveals Hazard for Brain Function in Risk Assessment

by Peter Machnik and Stefan Schuster

Molecules 2021, 26(22), 6935; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26226935 - 17 Nov 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1704

Abstract

Modern societies use a continuously growing number of chemicals. Because these are released into the environment and are taken up by humans, rigorous (but practicable) risk assessment must precede the approval of new substances for commerce. A number of tests is applicable, but it has been very difficult to efficiently assay the effect of chemicals on communication and information processing in vivo in the adult vertebrate brain. Here, we suggest a straightforward way to rapidly and accurately detect effects of chemical exposure on action potential generation, synaptic transmission, central information processing, and even processing in sensory systems in vivo by recording from a single neuron. The approach is possible in an identified neuron in the hindbrain of fish that integrates various sources of information and whose properties are ideal for rapid analysis of the various effects chemicals can have on the nervous system. The analysis uses fish but, as we discuss here, key neuronal functions are conserved and differences can only be due to differences in metabolism or passage into the brain, factors that can easily be determined. Speed and efficiency of the method, therefore, make it suitable to provide information in risk assessment, as we illustrate here with the effects of bisphenols on adult brain function. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into the Occurrence and Toxic Effects of Bisphenol Residues in the Environment, Food, and Health-Related Matrices)

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