Research

24 pages, 9050 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mineralogical and Geochemical Characteristics of the Deeply Buried Wufeng–Longmaxi Shale in the Southern Sichuan Basin, China: Implications for Provenance and Tectonic Setting

by Ling Qi, Hongyan Wang, Zhensheng Shi, Tianqi Zhou, Guizhong Li, Shasha Sun and Feng Cheng

Minerals 2023, 13(12), 1502; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13121502 - 29 Nov 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 836

Abstract

Uncertain provenance and tectonic setting of shale has constrained the exploration and exploitation of natural gas in the Wufeng–Longmaxi Formation in the southern Sichuan Basin, China. Therefore, this study analyzed the mineral petrology and geochemistry to assess the effects of sorting, recycling, weathering, [...] Read more.

Uncertain provenance and tectonic setting of shale has constrained the exploration and exploitation of natural gas in the Wufeng–Longmaxi Formation in the southern Sichuan Basin, China. Therefore, this study analyzed the mineral petrology and geochemistry to assess the effects of sorting, recycling, weathering, and paleoclimate on the deeply buried shale. The findings revealed that the mineral composition is dominated by biogenic quartz, terrigenous clay minerals, and carbonate minerals. Combinations of clay lamina and silty lamina occur in black shale. The geochemical characteristics of these sedimentary rocks remain unaffected by sedimentary sorting and recycling processes. The clastic sediments primarily originate from the felsic igneous rock source that underwent moderate weathering during its initial deposition in the collision environment. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the paleoclimate and paleoprovenance characteristics, Wufeng–Longmaxi Formation characteristics are considered to have undergone six stages, among which the stage of relative enrichment of organic matter corresponds to LM1, LM2–3, and LM4. Following the Hirnantian glacial period, the era has witnessed global warming, marked by glacier melting, a rise in global sea level, and a decrease in terrestrial debris supply, collectively facilitating organic matter enrichment. During the LM5 and LM6–8 periods, the increase in source supply caused by the Leshan–Longnvsi and Qianzhong–Xuefeng uplift inhibited organic matter enrichment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir and Geochemistry Characteristics of Black Shale)

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24 pages, 8877 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Control Model of Organic Shale Enrichment by Terrigenous Weathering in Wufeng Formation–Longmaxi Formation, Southeast Sichuan, China

by Zhibo Zhang, Yinghai Guo, Difei Zhao, Jiaming Zhang, Chunlin Zeng and Yan Li

Minerals 2023, 13(6), 761; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13060761 - 31 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 902

Abstract

The relationship between the Late Ordovician–Early Silurian sedimentary system, weathering, paleoclimate, and primary productivity in the Yangzi region is not well understood. In this study, by analyzing the sedimentation cycle and major trace elements of the Youc well 2 in the southeast Sichuan [...] Read more.

The relationship between the Late Ordovician–Early Silurian sedimentary system, weathering, paleoclimate, and primary productivity in the Yangzi region is not well understood. In this study, by analyzing the sedimentation cycle and major trace elements of the Youc well 2 in the southeast Sichuan Basin, the coupling relationships of weathering indicators, terrigenous debris input indicators, paleoclimate, redox condition indicators, U-Mo covariance model, Mo/TOC relationship, and paleoproductivity indicators are investigated. The results show that single-well logs delineate four third-order sedimentary sequences (SS1, SS2, SS3, and SS4), two sedimentary subfacies, and four sedimentary microfacies in the Wufeng Formation–Longmaxi Formation. The weathering degree is stronger at the bottom where the climate shifts from warm–wet to cold–dry, and the seawater is in an oxidic–anoxic–oxidic–anoxic environment. While the primary productivity and material source input decreases gradually in the middle and upper part, the climate becomes dry and cold, and the seawater is in an anoxic–oxidic environment. Thus, a rock enrichment model for the organic matter shale of the Wufeng Formation–Longmaxi Formation in southeast Sichuan has been established. This provides more information on the control factors concerning organic matter enrichment and their interactions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir and Geochemistry Characteristics of Black Shale)

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27 pages, 8847 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Low-Temperature Hydrothermal Events and Basement Fault System on Low-Resistivity Shale Reservoirs: A Case Study from the Upper Ordovician to Lower Silurian in the Sichuan Basin, SW China

by Tianqi Zhou, Jingshun Cai, Shaomin Mou, Qun Zhao, Zhensheng Shi, Shasha Sun, Wei Guo, Jinliang Gao, Feng Cheng, Hongyan Wang, Ling Qi and Pingping Liang

Minerals 2023, 13(6), 720; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13060720 - 24 May 2023

Viewed by 990

Abstract

High graphitization is responsible for low-resistivity shale development with poor reservoir quality. This paper provides an explanation of organic matter graphitization and determines the impact of high graphite content on low-resistivity shale reservoir quality at the Wufeng-Longmaxi Formation in the Southern Sichuan Basin. [...] Read more.

High graphitization is responsible for low-resistivity shale development with poor reservoir quality. This paper provides an explanation of organic matter graphitization and determines the impact of high graphite content on low-resistivity shale reservoir quality at the Wufeng-Longmaxi Formation in the Southern Sichuan Basin. Fine veins are frequently developed at shale samples with Ro > 3.5%, graphitized organic matter > 25%, and resistivity < 5 Ω•m, which are dominated by three mineral assemblages: brunsvigite, barite-hyalophane-barium feldspar-potassium feldspar-anhydrite, and calcite-ankerite. These filling minerals are characterized by an Eu positive anomaly and high Ba, Fe, and Mn contents, suggesting that low-resistivity shale was modified by magmatic-related low-temperature hydrothermal fluid. Temperature measurements of brine inclusions and a semi-empirical geothermometer of chlorite show that low-temperature hydrothermal fluid experienced the chlorite stage (150–180 °C), the low-sulfidation stage (120–150 °C), and the low-temperature calcitization stage. Paleozoic fault systems and late Permian hydrothermal activities associated with the Emeishan mantle plume control the graphitization of low-resistivity shale. The water formation and seawater infiltrated into the deep crust along the Paleozoic basement faults under gravity, developing alkaline hot brine through mantle plume heating and then causing a water-rock reaction with basement rocks. They migrated upward along deep and large Paleozoic faults through convective thermal circulation in the Tiangongtang area, the Shuanglong-Luochang area, and the Xuyong area. Cation exchange and redox reactions occurred during the interaction between high-temperature hydrothermal fluid and cool wall rocks. The migration of alkaline hot brine via the Wufeng-Longmaxi shale introduced a subsequent water-rock reaction, resulting in the development of hydrothermal mineral assemblages that intricately filled fractures. It increased formation temperature and enhanced thermal maturity and graphitization of organic matter at the Wufeng-Longmaxi low-resistivity shale, resulting in a wide distribution of low-resistivity shale at the Changning Block. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir and Geochemistry Characteristics of Black Shale)

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18 pages, 7541 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Diagenesis and Pore Formation Evolution of Continental Shale in the Da’anzhai Lower Jurassic Section in the Sichuan Basin

by Qiang Fu, Zongquan Hu, Tingting Qin, Dongjun Feng, Bing Yang, Zhiwei Zhu and Lele Xing

Minerals 2023, 13(4), 535; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13040535 - 11 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1129

Abstract

As an unconventional oil and gas reservoir, the diagenesis and evolution of continental shale controls the formation and occurrence of inorganic and organic pores. In order to quantitatively characterize the pore characteristics of a continental shale reservoir and their influence on the evolution [...] Read more.

As an unconventional oil and gas reservoir, the diagenesis and evolution of continental shale controls the formation and occurrence of inorganic and organic pores. In order to quantitatively characterize the pore characteristics of a continental shale reservoir and their influence on the evolution of the diagenesis stage, the characteristics of organic and inorganic pore types of continental shale in the Da’anzhai section of the lower Jurassic Ziliujing Formation were identified by means of X-ray diffraction mineral composition analysis and argon ion polishing scanning electron microscope measurements and observations, and the influence control of the diagenesis stage on the pore development of the continental shale reservoir and its control were clarified. The results show the following: ① The organic matter pores in continental shale are developed in large quantities, including organic matter pores in the mineral asphalt matrix and organic matter pores in the kerogen; the pore types of inorganic minerals are very rich, the main pore types are linear pores between clay minerals, intergranular (intergranular) pores, and intragranular corrosion pores, and microcracks are also developed. ② When affected by compaction diagenesis, the inorganic pores of continental shale decrease with an increase in the burial depth and diagenesis degree. ③ The burial depth of continental shale is 2000–3000 m in the middle of diagenetic stage A, and a large number of organic matter pores and dissolved inorganic pores develop at this depth, meaning that the total porosity of shale increases significantly. The burial depth of continental shale is 3000–4000 m at diagenetic stage B, where kaolinite and other clay minerals are dehydrated and converted into illite, the brittleness of shale is increased, and the interior of the shale is subject to external stress, causing microcracks to form. In the late diagenetic stage, when the buried depth of the continental shale is more than 4000 m, the organic matter is subject to secondary cracking and hydrocarbon generation, the organic pores of shale increase in number again, and the inorganic pores decrease in number due to compaction. In conclusion, we found that the burial depth is the main control factor for the development of pores and microfractures in continental shale reservoirs; diagenesis caused by burial depth is the main factor affecting the development of pores and microfractures in continental shale reservoirs; and the shale burial depth in this case is more than 3500 m, which is in the middle of diagenetic stage B. Inorganic porosity in shale is reduced, and the number of microfractures is increased. When the shale is buried more than 4000 m deep in the late diagenetic stage, the thermal evolution of organic matter in shale is high, and methane gas is generated in large quantities, which is conducive to the formation and development of organic matter pores in continental shale. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir and Geochemistry Characteristics of Black Shale)

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13 pages, 3635 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rock Physical Properties of Longmaxi Shale Gas Formation in South Sichuan Province, China

by Wei Guo, Majia Zheng, Zhonghua Liu, Weijun Shen, Shangwen Zhou, Pingping Liang and Yuchuan Chen

Minerals 2023, 13(4), 485; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13040485 - 30 Mar 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1094

Abstract

Deep shale gas (burial depth > 3500 m) in the Longmaxi Formation of southern Sichuan Province will be the primary target for exploration and development in China for a relatively long period. However, the lack of a physical basis for the “sweet-spots” seismic [...] Read more.

Deep shale gas (burial depth > 3500 m) in the Longmaxi Formation of southern Sichuan Province will be the primary target for exploration and development in China for a relatively long period. However, the lack of a physical basis for the “sweet-spots” seismic and well-logging prediction is caused by uncertainty in the rock physical properties of deep shale gas in the research area. Acoustic and hardness measurements were performed on shale samples from a deep layer of the Longmaxi Formation in southern Sichuan. Microtextural characteristics of the shale samples were also analyzed by conventional optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Based on these measurements, the rock physical properties of the shale samples and control factors are discussed. It is shown that the deep shale samples have similar properties to the shallow shale in mineral composition, microtexture, and pore type. However, the organic pore in deep shale samples is relatively undeveloped, while the dissolved pores are more developed. For high-quality shale samples (total organic content > 2%), crystal quartz of biological origin forms the framework of rock samples, resulting in effective dynamic and static properties, reflecting the elastic behavior of rigid quartz aggregates. For organic-lean samples (total organic content < 2%), orientated detrital clay particles take the role of load-bearing grains. Therefore, these shale samples’ overall rock physical properties are mainly controlled by the elastic properties of “soft” clay. The load-bearing grain variation from organic-rich shale samples to organic-lean samples results in an overturned “V”-type change in terms of velocity versus content. Organic-rich shale samples also show an apparent low Poisson’s ratio. Organic-rich shale has a slight velocity–porosity trend, while organic-lean shale shows a significant velocity–porosity trend. In addition, due to the difference in rock microtexture between organic-rich and organic-lean shale, these two kinds of reservoir rocks can be discriminated in cross plots of P-wave impedance versus Poisson’s ratio and Young’s modulus versus Poisson’s ratio. Change in hardness also reflects the control of microtexture, and shale samples with biological-origin quartz as load-bearing grains show higher hardness and brittleness. However, the variation in quartz content has less of an impact on hardness and brittleness in shale samples with clay as the load-bearing grain. Our results provide an experimental basis for the geophysical identification and prediction of deep shale gas layers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir and Geochemistry Characteristics of Black Shale)

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24 pages, 11524 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Elemental Geochemistry and Biomarker Measurements of the Silurian Shale of Qusaiba Formation, Tayma Area, Northwestern Saudi Arabia: Implication for Organic Matter Input and Paleoenvironmental Conditions

by Aref Lashin, Mohamed Hail Hakimi, Faisal AlGhamdi, Abiodun Matthew Amao, Abdulrahman AlQuraishi, Khalid Abdel Fattah and Abdulaziz Bin Laboun

Minerals 2023, 13(4), 468; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13040468 - 26 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1843

Abstract

This study systematically analyzes the dark shale samples of the Silurian Qusaiba Formation from the Tayma Quadrangle outcrop section in the northwest of Saudi Arabia, and assesses the source and nature of its organic matter and the main sedimentary environmental conditions during accumulation [...] Read more.

This study systematically analyzes the dark shale samples of the Silurian Qusaiba Formation from the Tayma Quadrangle outcrop section in the northwest of Saudi Arabia, and assesses the source and nature of its organic matter and the main sedimentary environmental conditions during accumulation of organic matter. The Qusaiba shale samples are characterized by total organic carbon (TOC) and sulfur contents with total values in the range of 0.87–1.76 wt. % and 0.59–4.64 wt. %, respectively, indicating a marine setting ranging from dysoxic to anoxic environmental conditions. The biomarkers are characterized by a relatively low Pr/Ph ratio between 0.50 and 1.24. The abundance of tricyclic terpanes and high C₂₇ and C₂₉ regular steranes equated to C₂₈ regular sterane, providing evidence that the organic matter derived primarily from marine organisms, including algal and other aquatic organic matter and some terrigenous land plants, and was deposited under dysoxic to anoxic environmental conditions. The significant low oxygen environmental conditions may contribute to preservation of organic matter during deposition. The inorganic geochemical indications suggest that the Qusaiba shales were accumulated in a warm–humid climate and with low salinity stratification conditions of the water columns. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir and Geochemistry Characteristics of Black Shale)

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19 pages, 3079 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characteristics and Influencing Factors of Multi-Scale Pore Structure Heterogeneity of Lacustrine Shale in the Gaoyou Sag, Eastern China

by Peng Li, Houjian Gong, Zhenxue Jiang, Fan Zhang, Zhikai Liang, Zipeng Wang, Yonghui Wu and Xindi Shao

Minerals 2023, 13(3), 359; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13030359 - 03 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1155

Abstract

The success of shale oil exploration and production is highly dependent on the heterogeneous nature of the reservoir pore structure. Despite this, there remains limited research on the heterogeneity characteristics of pores at different scales in lacustrine shale oil reservoirs and the factors [...] Read more.

The success of shale oil exploration and production is highly dependent on the heterogeneous nature of the reservoir pore structure. Despite this, there remains limited research on the heterogeneity characteristics of pores at different scales in lacustrine shale oil reservoirs and the factors that impact them. This study aims to quantitatively characterize the multi-scale pore heterogeneity differences of the lacustrine shale found in the Funing Formation in Gaoyou Sag. Additionally, the study seeks to clarify the impact of the total organic carbon (TOC) and lithofacies type on pore structure heterogeneity. To achieve this, nitrogen adsorption, scanning electronic microscope (SEM), mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP), and other experimental means were adopted in combination with the fractal dimension model of FHH and capillary. The results show that the predominant lithofacies of the Funing Formation shale samples are mixed shale (MS) and siliceous shale (SS), with a limited presence of calcareous shale (CS). The micro-pores of lacustrine shale are dominated by inorganic mineral pores and fewer organic pores. Intragranular pores and clay mineral pores are two types of inorganic mineral pores that are widely found. Small pores (pore diameter < 50 nm) make up 89% of the pore volume (PV) and 99% of the specific surface area (SSA). The fractal dimensions D₁, D₂, and D₃ were calculated to characterize the roughness of the pore surface, the structural complexity of small pores, and the structural complexity of large pores (pore diameter > 50 nm), respectively. The increase in the total organic carbon (TOC) resulted in a decrease in the D₁, D₂, PV, and SSA, while connectivity showed a slight improvement. The fractal dimension of shale across all lithofacies followed the pattern: D₃ > D₂ > D₁. The pore structure is more complex than the pore surface, and the large pores showed a greater heterogeneity than the small pores. Among the three lithofacies, CS had the largest PV, SSA, D₁, and D₂, indicating the development of a more complex pore structure network. This expands the space required for shale oil occurrence. However, the connectivity of the CS lithofacies is the lowest among the three, which hinders shale oil production. Although the PV of SS is slightly lower than that of CS, its average pore diameter (AVE PD) and connectivity are significantly advantageous, making SS an ideal shale reservoir. This study provides an important reference for the reservoir evaluation required to better develop lacustrine shale oil around the world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir and Geochemistry Characteristics of Black Shale)

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16 pages, 1948 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Controls on Organic Matter Accumulation from an Upper Slope Section on the Early Cambrian Yangtze Platform, South China

by Gongjing Zhang, Daizhao Chen, Yi Ding and Taiyu Huang

Minerals 2023, 13(2), 260; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020260 - 12 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1356

Abstract

The early Cambrian witnessed profound environmental changes and biological evolution in Earth’ history. During this period, organic-rich shales were widely distributed over almost the entire Yangtze Block. However, the dominant factor that drove the significant accumulation of organic matter (OM) remains controversial and [...] Read more.

The early Cambrian witnessed profound environmental changes and biological evolution in Earth’ history. During this period, organic-rich shales were widely distributed over almost the entire Yangtze Block. However, the dominant factor that drove the significant accumulation of organic matter (OM) remains controversial and is still debated. Here, we analyzed TOC, organic carbon isotopes, iron speciation, major and trace elements for the lower Cambrian Niutitang Formation in the upper slope Meiziwan section, to investigate the dominant factor controlling OM accumulation. High contents of TOC and Ba_xs reveal an OM-enriched feature of the Niutitang Formation, and the coupled relationship between them suggest a strong production control on OM accumulation at Meiziwan. Meanwhile, negative relationships between TOC and chemical index of alteration (CIA) values as well as Al contents suggest that influence of chemical weathering and terrestrial input on OM accumulation were limited. Fairly low Co_EF × Mn_EF values provide strong evidence that the deposition of organic-rich shales was under the control of oceanic upwelling event. The upwelling event would bring nutrient-rich deep waters into surface water, stimulating phytoplankton bloom and primary productivity in surface water and facilitating OM enrichment. Meanwhile, enhanced accumulation of OM would have promoted subsequent bacterial sulfate reduction, leading to the occurrence of occasional euxinia (evidenced by iron speciation and redox-sensitive trace element data) and promoting preservation of OM. Taken together, our results shed light on the critical role of oceanic upwelling on the marine primary productivity on the earliest Cambrian Yangtze Platform. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir and Geochemistry Characteristics of Black Shale)

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26 pages, 19341 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Occurrence Mechanism of Lacustrine Shale Oil in the Second Member of the Paleogene Kongdian Formation, Cangdong Sag, Bohai Bay Basin

by Qingmin Dong, Xiugang Pu, Shiyue Chen, Jihua Yan, Zhannan Shi, Wenzhong Han, Delu Xie, Jiangchang Dong, Zheng Fang and Bo Wang

Minerals 2023, 13(2), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020199 - 30 Jan 2023

Viewed by 3238

Abstract

The lacustrine shale in the second member of the Kongdian Formation (Ek2) is the most significant target of shale oil exploration in the Cangdong Sag, Bohai Bay Basin, China. To investigate the occurrence mechanisms and to reveal the influencing factors of shale oil [...] Read more.

The lacustrine shale in the second member of the Kongdian Formation (Ek2) is the most significant target of shale oil exploration in the Cangdong Sag, Bohai Bay Basin, China. To investigate the occurrence mechanisms and to reveal the influencing factors of shale oil mobility in Ek2, a series of analyses (X-ray diffraction (XRD), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), total organic carbon (TOC) analysis, Rock-Eval pyrolysis, low-temperature nitrogen physisorption (LNP), mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP), and multiple isothermal stage (MIS) pyrolysis) were conducted on samples collected from well cores in the Cangdong Sag. The results show that the lithofacies can be categorized as laminated felsic shales, laminated and massive mixed shales, and laminated and massive carbonate shales. The shales were characterized by a high organic matter abundance and moderate thermal evolution with good to excellent hydrocarbon generation potential and contained a high abundance of Type I and II1 kerogens. Laminated felsic shales and laminated mixed shales, compared with other lithofacies, had clear advantages in the amount of free hydrocarbon that can be volatilized from the rock (S1), the oil saturation index (OSI) value, and the free oil and movable oil content. LNP, MIP, and MIS pyrolysis analyses show that the residual shale oil mainly occurred in pores with diameters smaller than 200 nm, and the pore diameter when residual oil occurred in some laminated shale samples could reach 50 μm. The lower limits of the pore diameter where free oil and movable oil occurred were 7 and 30 nm, respectively. The mobility of shale oil is controlled by the shale oil component, thermal maturity, TOC content, and pore volume. The results herein provide a basis for the evaluation of optimal shale oil intervals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir and Geochemistry Characteristics of Black Shale)

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18 pages, 4785 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Differences in Pore Type and Pore Structure between Silurian Longmaxi Marine Shale and Jurassic Dongyuemiao Lacustrine Shale and Their Influence on Shale-Gas Enrichment

by Pengwei Wang, Haikuan Nie, Zhongbao Liu, Chuanxiang Sun, Zhe Cao, Ruyue Wang and Pei Li

Minerals 2023, 13(2), 190; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020190 - 28 Jan 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1461

Abstract

The Silurian Longmaxi (S₁l) marine shale and Jurassic Dongyuemiao (J₁d) lacustrine shale in the Sichuan Basin, West China have attracted considerable attention from the oil-and-gas industry in China. Currently, the differences in pore types and pore structures between them [...] Read more.

The Silurian Longmaxi (S₁l) marine shale and Jurassic Dongyuemiao (J₁d) lacustrine shale in the Sichuan Basin, West China have attracted considerable attention from the oil-and-gas industry in China. Currently, the differences in pore types and pore structures between them are poorly understood, which has limited shale-resource exploration in the Sichuan Basin. This paper systemically compares the pore characteristics of Longmaxi shale and Dongyuemiao shale and investigates their impact on shale-gas enrichment by integrating field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE–SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), low-pressure gas (CO₂ and N₂) adsorption and mercury-intrusion porosimetry, high-pressure sorption isotherms, gas-saturation measurement, molecular-dynamics simulation, etc. The results show that the S₁l organic-rich marine shale and the J₁d lacustrine shale have different pore types and pore structures. The S₁l shale is dominated by organic pores, mainly micropores and mesopores with ink-bottle-like pore shapes, while the J₁d shale is primarily composed of clay-mineral pores, mainly mesopores and macropores with slit- or plate-like pore shapes. Organic pores can provide considerable storage space for shale-gas enrichment in S₁l marine shale, which also determines the adsorption capacity of shale reservoirs. Although organic pores are not the most prevalent in the Dongyuemiao lacustrine shale, they also play an important role in enhancing reservoir quality and absorbed-gas enrichment. Clay-mineral pores contribute weakly to the storage space of J₁d-lacustrine-shale reservoirs. Mesopores are the most important form of storage space in both S₁l shale and J₁d shale, contributing significantly to shale-gas enrichment. Micropores are secondary in importance in S₁l marine shale, while macropores are secondary contributors to pore volume in J₁d lacustrine shale. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir and Geochemistry Characteristics of Black Shale)

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10 pages, 4928 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Organic Geochemistry and Hydrocarbon Generation Characteristics of Shale of the Fourth Member of Yingcheng Formation in the South Shuangcheng Fault Depression, Songliao Basin

by Lidong Shi, Lidong Sun, Liang Yang, Jinshuang Xu, Changpeng Du and Fangwen Chen

Minerals 2023, 13(1), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13010033 - 26 Dec 2022

Viewed by 1411

Abstract

In order to evaluate the potential for oil and gas resources in the deep fault depression of the Northern Songliao Basin, shale from the fourth member of the Yingcheng Formation (K₁yc⁴) in the South Shuangcheng Fault Depression was selected [...] Read more.

In order to evaluate the potential for oil and gas resources in the deep fault depression of the Northern Songliao Basin, shale from the fourth member of the Yingcheng Formation (K₁yc⁴) in the South Shuangcheng Fault Depression was selected as an example. The organic geochemical characteristics such as abundance, type and maturity from experiments on low-maturity source rock samples, the hydrocarbon generation conversion rate, hydrocarbon generation amount and hydrocarbon generation period of the shale from K₁yc⁴ were evaluated via the chemical kinetics method. The hydrocarbon generation threshold of shale from K₁yc⁴ in the South Shuangcheng Fault Depression was analyzed by examining the organic matter (OM) in shale core samples from K₁yc⁴. Based on the thermal simulations to an approximate buried depth of 750 m, the maximum oil-generation stage corresponds to an approximate buried depth of 1380 m. The amounts of generated oil and gas from the shale in K₁yc⁴ are approximately 2.417 × 10⁸ t and 0.546 × 10¹¹ m³, respectively. The shale in K₁yc⁴ generated crude oil mainly during the sedimentary period of the Qingshankou Formation, Yaojia Formation and Nenjiang Formation, and mainly generated natural gas during the sedimentary period of the Nenjiang Formation. In the South Shuangcheng Fault Depression, the high parts of the local structure are the favorable areas for oil and gas exploration of K₁yc⁴ in the sag zone, which could be used for the combined production of shale oil, tight sandstone oil and conventional oil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir and Geochemistry Characteristics of Black Shale)

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16 pages, 4365 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Filling Characteristics of Radiolarian Siliceous Shell Cavities at Wufeng-Longmaxi Shale in Sichuan Basin, Southwest China

by Xiaofeng Zhou, Pingping Liang, Xizhe Li, Wei Guo, Xiaowei Zhang and Jichen Yu

Minerals 2022, 12(12), 1545; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12121545 - 30 Nov 2022

Viewed by 1287

Abstract

Both complete and uncompleted radiolarian siliceous shells were developed at Wufeng-Longmaxi radiolarian siliceous shale laminae in Sichuan Basin. Micro- and ultra-micropetrological observation suggests that they were successively filled by calcite, pyrite and organic–silicon complex, where pyrite and organic–silicon complex filled dissolved pores associated [...] Read more.

Both complete and uncompleted radiolarian siliceous shells were developed at Wufeng-Longmaxi radiolarian siliceous shale laminae in Sichuan Basin. Micro- and ultra-micropetrological observation suggests that they were successively filled by calcite, pyrite and organic–silicon complex, where pyrite and organic–silicon complex filled dissolved pores associated with calcite during sedimentation. Calcite was derived from calcium carbonate produced by microbial activities at the seawater surface. The environment of radiolarian siliceous shell cavities, which was suitable for sulfate reducing bacterial growth or dissolved hydrogen sulfide reducing Fe³⁺, contributed positively to pyrite development. Organic–silicon complex development was related to microorganism metabolism that was an important silica source. Honeycomb-like organic pores were developed in cavities with complete shells, but were not developed in cavities with uncompleted shells. This is because the latter could not withstand overburden pressure compared with the former. The only approach to figure out organic pore carriers and understand sequences and development processes of minerals and organic matter is to select weakly compacted radiolarian siliceous shale laminae to carry out micro- and ultra-micropetrological observation and geochemical testing via various technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir and Geochemistry Characteristics of Black Shale)

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19 pages, 12255 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influences of Inclined Pre-Existing Flaw on Shale Failure Modes in Uniaxial Compression Tests

by Yuxin Ban, Qiang Xie, Jun Duan and Xiang Fu

Minerals 2022, 12(10), 1330; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12101330 - 20 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 973

Abstract

Numerous studies have focused on the mechanical properties of shale specimens to support hydraulic fracturing in shale gas engineering. However, the failure modes of shale specimens containing a pre-existing flaw are still not clear. A series of uniaxial compression tests were conducted on [...] Read more.

Numerous studies have focused on the mechanical properties of shale specimens to support hydraulic fracturing in shale gas engineering. However, the failure modes of shale specimens containing a pre-existing flaw are still not clear. A series of uniaxial compression tests were conducted on shale specimens containing a pre-existing flaw coupled with acoustic emission (AE) technology and a high-speed camera. A slow enough and variable loading speed scheme (0–50 kN: 0.1 kN/s, 50–100 kN: 0.05 kN/s; 100-failure: 0.02 kN/s) is adopted to allow microcracks to fully develop. The damage mechanism in the mesoscale from moment tensor inversion of the AE signals and the cracking behaviors on the macroscale were associated. Both the pre-existing flaw and the bedding layers had significant influences on the mechanical characteristics, progressive cracking, and failure modes of the shale specimens. The peak stress increases fluctuated as the bedding layer angle

α

increases, and the maximum and minimum values take place at

α = 90 °

and

α = 0 °

, respectively. In addition, the pre-existing flaw, the bedding layers, and the compression stress field jointly control the failure modes of the shale specimens. It was found that the

α = 0 °

specimen failed due to tension splitting, the

α = 30 °

specimen failed due to tension splitting and shear across the matrix, the

α = 60

specimen failed due to shear across the shale matrix and shear along the bedding layers, and the

α = 90 °

specimen failed due to tension along the bedding layers and shear across the shale matrix. The study can provide some references to the construction of complex crack networks in shale gas engineering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir and Geochemistry Characteristics of Black Shale)

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31 pages, 8258 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mineralogy and Geochemistry of the Upper Ordovician and Lower Silurian Wufeng-Longmaxi Shale on the Yangtze Platform, South China: Implications for Provenance Analysis and Shale Gas Sweet-Spot Interval

by Zhensheng Shi, Shengxian Zhao, Tianqi Zhou, Lihua Ding, Shasha Sun and Feng Cheng

Minerals 2022, 12(10), 1190; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12101190 - 22 Sep 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 1455

Abstract

The sediment provenance influences the formation of the shale gas sweet-spot interval of the Upper Ordovician–Lower Silurian Wufeng–Longmaxi shale from the Yangtze Platform, South China. To identify the provenance, the mineralogy and geochemistry of the shale were investigated. The methods included optical microscopy [...] Read more.

The sediment provenance influences the formation of the shale gas sweet-spot interval of the Upper Ordovician–Lower Silurian Wufeng–Longmaxi shale from the Yangtze Platform, South China. To identify the provenance, the mineralogy and geochemistry of the shale were investigated. The methods included optical microscopy analysis, X-ray diffraction testing, field-emission scanning electron imaging, and major and trace element analysis. The Wufeng–Longmaxi shale is mainly composed of quartz (avg. 39.94%), calcite (avg. 12.29%), dolomite (avg. 11.75%), and clay minerals (avg. 28.31%). The LM1 interval is the shale gas sweet-spot and has the highest contents of total quartz (avg. 62.1%, among which microcrystalline quartz accounts for 52.8% on average) and total organic carbon (avg. 4.6%). The relatively narrow range of TiO₂–Zr variation and the close correlation between Th/Sc and Zr/Sc signify no obvious sorting and recycling of the sediment source rocks. Sedimentary sorting has a limited impact on the geochemical features of the shale. The relatively high value of ICV (index of compositional variability) (1.03–3.86) and the low value of CIA (chemical index of alteration values) (50.62–74.48) indicate immature sediment source rocks, probably undergoing weak to moderate chemical weathering. All samples have patterns of moderately enriched light rare-earth elements and flat heavy rare-earth elements with negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.35–0.92) in chondrite-normalized diagrams. According to Th/Sc, Zr/Sc, La/Th, Zr/Al₂O₃, TiO₂/Zr, Co/Th, SiO₂/Al₂O₃, K₂O/Na₂O, and La/Sc, it can be inferred that the major sediment source rocks were acidic igneous rocks derived from the active continental margin and continental island arc. A limited terrigenous supply caused by the inactive tectonic setting is an alternative interpretation of the formation of the sweet-spot interval. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir and Geochemistry Characteristics of Black Shale)

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15 pages, 2559 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stable Isotopic, Micro-FTIR, and Geochemical Characteristics of the Permian Madzaringwe Shale of Tuli Basin, South Africa: Implications for Organic-Rich Shale Provenance

by George Oluwole Akintola, Francis Amponsah-Dacosta, Steven Rupprecht and Sphiwe Emmanuel Mhlongo

Minerals 2022, 12(9), 1160; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12091160 - 14 Sep 2022

Viewed by 1599

Abstract

The paleo-environmental setting of an organic-rich shale remains an essential controlling factor for shale reservoir distribution. The scarcity of generalised data on paleo-environment settings has been spurred using a simple investigative approach to decipher the provenance of organic-rich shale in various regions. This [...] Read more.

The paleo-environmental setting of an organic-rich shale remains an essential controlling factor for shale reservoir distribution. The scarcity of generalised data on paleo-environment settings has been spurred using a simple investigative approach to decipher the provenance of organic-rich shale in various regions. This study investigates the organic-rich Madzaringwe shale of the Tuli Basin to reconstruct the provenance of the organic material for shale gas generation potential. Representative shale core samples were analysed for the stable isotopic fractions, functional groups, and major and trace compositions. The carbon isotopic composition, δ¹³C value, ranging from −21.01 to −24.0‰, averaging at −22.4‰. Inference from the stable isotopic compositions and functional group analysis indicate Type-III kerogen prone to gas generation in the studied Madzaringwe shale. The micro-Fourier transformed infrared (micro-FTIR) analysis reveals infrared absorption peaks between 2800 and 3300 cm⁻¹ wavelengths corresponding to gaseous hydrocarbon. The x-ray fluorescence (XRF) result reveals major elements comprising Al₂O₃ (29.25–29.11%), CaO (0.29–0.28%), Fe₂O₃ (1.16–1.09%), K₂O (0.97–0.98%), MgO (0.13–0.12%), Na₂O (0.12–0.09%), P₂O₅ (0.22–0.21%), SiO₂ (52.50–52.30%), and TiO₂ (1.20–1.18%). The major element ratio of Al₂O₃/TiO₂ values ≥ 25 indicates felsic and intermediate provenance from a terrigenous paleo-environment. In addition, laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LAICP-MS) reveals the trace elements in which elemental proxy of V/(V + Ni) with a value greater than 0.5 represent reducing environments. Furthermore, the geochemical proxies and isotopic compositions have revealed an anoxic paleo-environment for the non-marine-derived organic matter in the studied carbonaceous shale. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir and Geochemistry Characteristics of Black Shale)

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19 pages, 3925 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantitative Characterization and Controlling Factors of Shallow Shale Reservoir in Taiyang Anticline, Zhaotong Area, China

by Kai Ma, Bing Zhang, Siyu Wen, Xiaoyang Lin, Yan Wang and Kai Yang

Minerals 2022, 12(8), 998; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12080998 - 08 Aug 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1532

Abstract

Pore and its structural characteristics are key parameters affecting shale gas reservoir development. Accurate quantitative characterization of shale pore and its structural characteristics is of great significance for evaluating shale reservoir state. In this study, 15 shallow marine shale samples were collected in [...] Read more.

Pore and its structural characteristics are key parameters affecting shale gas reservoir development. Accurate quantitative characterization of shale pore and its structural characteristics is of great significance for evaluating shale reservoir state. In this study, 15 shallow marine shale samples were collected in Well Y108. X-ray diffraction results indicate that brittle minerals are the most common components in shale. In this paper, various pore types are classified and characterized by scanning electron microscope images. The total porosity of shale measured by the mercury intrusion method is between 3.2% and 6.5%. In addition, a petrophysical model is established to calculate matrix porosity and fracture. The results of this model are consistent with the measured porosity. Three key parameters (V_TOC > V_Bri > V_Clay) were obtained. The low-pressure N₂/CO₂ adsorption experiment allows for the analysis of pore volume, specific surface area, and pore size. Finally, it was determined that the primary pore types and primary shale gas reservoir space in shallow marine shale are mesopores and micropores. The impact of shale constituents on pores and their structural properties is also covered in this work. The results indicate that the enrichment of total organic carbon and brittle minerals is conducive to the development of shallow marine shale pore-fracture system. Additionally, there is a positive linear relationship between matrix porosity, pore volume, specific surface area, average pore diameter, and surface porosity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir and Geochemistry Characteristics of Black Shale)

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