Research

10 pages, 2347 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Serological Evidence of Natural Exposure to Tick-Borne Pathogens in Horses, Romania

by Andreea Monica Bogdan, Mariana Ionita and Ioan Liviu Mitrea

Microorganisms 2021, 9(2), 373; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9020373 - 12 Feb 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2025

The purpose of this study was to investigate the seroprevalence of selected tick-borne-pathogens (TBPs) among Romanian horses. For this, a total of 223 animals originating from north, central, and southeast Romania, including horses from stud farms (n = 118) and working horses [...] Read more.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the seroprevalence of selected tick-borne-pathogens (TBPs) among Romanian horses. For this, a total of 223 animals originating from north, central, and southeast Romania, including horses from stud farms (n = 118) and working horses (n = 105), were tested using a commercial rapid ELISA-based test. Overall, 10.3% (95% confidence interval (CI): 6.7–15.1%) of the tested horses were seropositive for antibodies (Ab) against Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Additionally, 18.8% (95% CI: 13.9–24.6%) and 0.5% (95% CI: 0.01–2.5%) of horses were seropositive for Ab against Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato and Ehrlichia spp., respectively. Among the tested horses, 3.1% were seroreactive to two or three pathogens. These findings show the natural exposure of Romanian horses to zoonotic tick-borne pathogens and emphasize the need for further studies to better understand the epidemiology of equine tick-borne diseases in Romania. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Tick-Borne Diseases Research)

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11 pages, 1028 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Kynurenine Pathway is Differentially Activated in Children with Lyme Disease and Tick-Borne Encephalitis

by Ronny Wickström, Åsa Fowler, Michel Goiny, Vincent Millischer, Sofia Ygberg and Lilly Schwieler

Microorganisms 2021, 9(2), 322; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9020322 - 04 Feb 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2780

Abstract

In children, tick-borne encephalitis and neuroborreliosis are common infections affecting the central nervous system. As inflammatory pathways including cytokine expression are activated in these children and appear to be of importance for outcome, we hypothesized that induction of the kynurenine pathway may be [...] Read more.

In children, tick-borne encephalitis and neuroborreliosis are common infections affecting the central nervous system. As inflammatory pathways including cytokine expression are activated in these children and appear to be of importance for outcome, we hypothesized that induction of the kynurenine pathway may be part of the pathophysiological mechanism. Inflammatory biomarkers were analyzed in cerebrospinal fluid from 22 children with tick-borne encephalitis (TBE), 34 children with neuroborreliosis (NB) and 6 children with no central nervous system infection. Cerebrospinal fluid levels of kynurenine and kynurenic acid were increased in children with neuroborreliosis compared to the comparison group. A correlation was seen between expression of several cerebrospinal fluid cytokines and levels of kynurenine and kynurenic acid in children with neuroborreliosis but not in children with tick-borne encephalitis. These findings demonstrate a strong induction of the kynurenine pathway in children with neuroborreliosis which differs from that seen in children with tick-borne encephalitis. The importance of brain kynurenic acid (KYNA) in both immune modulation and neurotransmission raises the possibility that abnormal levels of the compound in neuroborreliosis might be of importance for the pathophysiology of the disease. Drugs targeting the enzymes of this pathway may open the venue for novel therapeutic interventions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Tick-Borne Diseases Research)

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14 pages, 2384 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Targeted Next-Generation Sequencing and Informatics as an Effective Tool to Establish the Composition of Bovine Piroplasm Populations in Endemic Regions

by Abdul Ghafar, Anson V. Koehler, Ross S. Hall, Charles G. Gauci, Robin B. Gasser and Abdul Jabbar

Microorganisms 2021, 9(1), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9010021 - 23 Dec 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3508

Abstract

Protists of the genera Babesia and Theileria (piroplasms) cause some of the most prevalent and debilitating diseases for bovines worldwide. In this study, we established and used a next-generation sequencing-informatic approach to explore the composition of Babesia and Theileria populations in cattle and [...] Read more.

Protists of the genera Babesia and Theileria (piroplasms) cause some of the most prevalent and debilitating diseases for bovines worldwide. In this study, we established and used a next-generation sequencing-informatic approach to explore the composition of Babesia and Theileria populations in cattle and water buffalo in a country (Pakistan) endemic for these pathogens. We collected individual blood samples from cattle (n = 212) and water buffalo (n = 154), extracted genomic DNAs, PCR-amplified the V4 hypervariable region of 18S small subunit rRNA gene from piroplasms, sequenced amplicons using Illumina technology, and then analysed data using bioinformatic platforms. The results revealed piroplasms in 68.9% (252/366) samples, with overall occurrence being markedly higher in cattle (85.8%) than in water buffaloes (45.5%). Babesia (B.) occultans and Theileria (T.) lestoquardi-like species were recorded for the first time in Pakistan, and, overall, T. annulata was most commonly detected (65.8%) followed by B. bovis (7.1%), B. bigemina (4.4%), and T. orientalis (0.5%), with the genetic variability within B. bovis being pronounced. The occurrence and composition of piroplasm species varied markedly across different agro-ecological zones. The high detection of T. annulata in asymptomatic animals suggested a relatively high level of endemic stability of tropical theileriosis in the bovine population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Tick-Borne Diseases Research)

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13 pages, 2168 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hymenopteran Parasitoids of Hard Ticks in Western Africa and the Russian Far East

by Mapenda Gaye, Nadia Amanzougaghene, Younes Laidoudi, El Hadji Amadou Niang, Zuzana Sekeyová, Maureen Laroche, Jean-Michel Bérenger, Didier Raoult, Mária Kazimírová, Florence Fenollar and Oleg Mediannikov

Microorganisms 2020, 8(12), 1992; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8121992 - 14 Dec 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2697

Abstract

Some parasitoids of the genus Ixodiphagus (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea: Encyrtidae) are well-known natural enemies of ticks. In this study, we investigate the occurrence of parasitoid wasps in adult hard ticks from Western Africa (Côte d’Ivoire and Senegal) and Far Eastern Europe (Russia) using molecular [...] Read more.

Some parasitoids of the genus Ixodiphagus (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea: Encyrtidae) are well-known natural enemies of ticks. In this study, we investigate the occurrence of parasitoid wasps in adult hard ticks from Western Africa (Côte d’Ivoire and Senegal) and Far Eastern Europe (Russia) using molecular methods. The morphological identification allowed the classification of 785 collected specimens of six species of ticks: Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (41%), Ixodes persulcatus (33%), Dermacentor silvarum (11%), Haemaphysalis concinna (7%), Amblyomma variegatum (5%), and Haemaphysalis japonica (3%). The newly developed MALDI-TOF MS protocol identified tick species in spite of their different storage (dried or in 70% ethanol) conditions for a long period. Molecular screening of ticks by a new standard PCR system developed in this study revealed the presence of parasitoid wasp DNA in 3% (28/785) of analyzed ticks. Ixodiphagus hookeri was detected in 86% (24/28) of infested ticks, including 13 I. persulcatus, 9 R (B) microplus, and one H. concinna and D. silvarum. While an unidentified parasitoid wasp species from the subfamily Aphidiinae and Braconidae family was detected in the remaining 14% (4/28) infested ticks. These infested ticks were identified as I. persulcatus. Our findings highlight the need for further studies to clarify the species diversity of parasitoid infesting ticks by combining molecular and morphological features. The novel molecular and MALDI-TOF MS protocols could be effective tools for the surveillance and characterization of these potential bio-control agents of ticks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Tick-Borne Diseases Research)

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16 pages, 2124 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tick Fauna and Associated Rickettsia, Theileria, and Babesia spp. in Domestic Animals in Sudan (North Kordofan and Kassala States)

by Andrea Springer, Yassir Adam Shuaib, Makarim Habib Isaa, Malaz Isam-Eldin Ezz-Eldin, Abdinasir Yusuf Osman, Idris Ahmed Yagoub, Mohamed Abdalsalam Abdalla, Amel Omer Bakiet, Saad El-Tiab Mohmed-Noor, Sabine Schaper, Ramona Rieß, Gerhard Dobler, Christina Strube, Deon K. Bakkes and Lidia Chitimia-Dobler

Microorganisms 2020, 8(12), 1969; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8121969 - 11 Dec 2020

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3490

Abstract

Ticks and tick-borne diseases (TBDs) have a major economic impact on animal production worldwide. In the present study, 2410 ticks were collected from January to August 2017 from livestock and other domestic animals in North Kordofan and Kassala, Sudan, for species identification and [...] Read more.

Ticks and tick-borne diseases (TBDs) have a major economic impact on animal production worldwide. In the present study, 2410 ticks were collected from January to August 2017 from livestock and other domestic animals in North Kordofan and Kassala, Sudan, for species identification and investigation of Rickettsia spp. and piroplasms, either individually or as pools containing up to 10 ticks by molecular methods. In total, 13 tick species were identified by morphology and 16S rDNA sequencing. The most frequent tick species were Hyalomma impeltatum (24.90%), Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi (18.84%), Amblyomma lepidum (16.06%), and Rhipicephalus camicasi (12.49%). A pan-Rickettsia real-time PCR revealed an overall minimum infection rate (MIR) with Rickettsia spp. of 5.64% (136 positive tick pools/2410 total ticks). Rickettsia africae and Rickettsia aeschlimannii were the most frequently identified species by sequencing. Furthermore, the following highly pathogenic livestock parasites were detected: Theileria annulata, Theileria lestoquardi, Theileria equi, and Babesia caballi. The present study documented Rhipicephalus afranicus as well as Rickettsia conorii israelensis, Rickettsia massiliae, and Babesia pecorum for the first time in Sudan. These findings are significant for the animal production sector as well as in terms of One Health, as the detected Rickettsia spp. can cause serious illness in humans. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Tick-Borne Diseases Research)

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13 pages, 624 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamics of Borrelia burgdorferi-Specific Antibodies: Seroconversion and Seroreversion between Two Population-Based, Cross-Sectional Surveys among Adults in Germany

by Tom Woudenberg, Stefanie Böhm, Merle Böhmer, Katharina Katz, Niklas Willrich, Klaus Stark, Ronny Kuhnert, Volker Fingerle and Hendrik Wilking

Microorganisms 2020, 8(12), 1859; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8121859 - 25 Nov 2020

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2638

Abstract

Lyme borreliosis (LB) caused by Borrelia burgdorferi spp. is the most common human tick-borne disease in Europe. Although seroprevalence studies are conducted in several countries, rates of seroconversion and seroreversion are lacking, and they are essential to determine the risk of infection. Seropositivity [...] Read more.

Lyme borreliosis (LB) caused by Borrelia burgdorferi spp. is the most common human tick-borne disease in Europe. Although seroprevalence studies are conducted in several countries, rates of seroconversion and seroreversion are lacking, and they are essential to determine the risk of infection. Seropositivity was determined using a two-step approach—first, a serological screening assay, and in the event of a positive or equivocal result, a confirmatory immunoblot assay. Seroconversion and seroreversion rates were assessed from blood samples taken from participants included in two nation-wide population-based surveys. Moreover, the impact of antigen reactivity on seroreversion rates was assessed. The seroprevalence of antibodies reacting against B. burgdorferi spp. in the German population was 8.5% (95% CI 7.5–9.6) in 1997–99 and 9.3% (95% CI 8.3–10.4) in 2008–2011. Seroprevalence increased with age, up to 20% among 70–79 year-olds. The age-standardized seroprevalence remained the same. The yearly seroconversion rate was 0.45% (95% CI: 0.37–0.54), and the yearly seroreversion rate was 1.47% (95% CI: 1.24–2.17). Lower levels of antibodies were associated with seroreversion. Participants with a strong response against antigen p83 had the lowest odds on seroreversion. Given the yearly seroreversion rate of 1.47% and a seroprevalence up to 20% in the oldest age groups, at least 20% of the German population becomes infected with B. burgdorferi in their lifetime. The slight increase in seroprevalence between the two serosurveys was caused by an aging population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Tick-Borne Diseases Research)

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10 pages, 1218 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Glycerophosphodiester Phosphodiesterase Identified as Non-Reliable Serological Marker for Borrelia miyamotoi Disease

by Michael Reiter, Theresa Stelzer, Anna M. Schötta, Mateusz Markowicz, Michael Leschnik, Anna Harsch, Edda Reiß, Richard E. Kneusel, Hannes Stockinger and Gerold Stanek

Microorganisms 2020, 8(12), 1846; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8121846 - 24 Nov 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2203

Abstract

The relapsing fever group Borrelia miyamotoi is an emerging tick-borne pathogen. Diagnosis of infection is currently mainly based on serological methods detecting antibodies against B. miyamotoi glycerophosphodiester phosphodiesterase (GlpQ). Here, we scrutinized the reliability of GlpQ as a diagnostic marker and compared the [...] Read more.

The relapsing fever group Borrelia miyamotoi is an emerging tick-borne pathogen. Diagnosis of infection is currently mainly based on serological methods detecting antibodies against B. miyamotoi glycerophosphodiester phosphodiesterase (GlpQ). Here, we scrutinized the reliability of GlpQ as a diagnostic marker and compared the seroprevalence in different study populations and by applying various immunoblotting methods. Antibodies were detected in the sera of 7/53 hunters and in 1/11 sera of Lyme neuroborreliosis patients. Furthermore, 17/74 sera of persons with high concentrations of anti-Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (α-Bbsl) antibodies reacted strongly with B. miyamotoi GlpQ in immunoblots. The B. miyamotoi GlpQ seroprevalence was 7/50 in α-Bbsl negative persons. In healthy blood donors from commercial suppliers and from the Austrian Red Cross, seroprevalences were 5/14 and 10/35, respectively. Strikingly, two B. miyamotoi PCR-positive cases from Austria had negative GlpQ serology, indicating poor sensitivity. Finally, when we analyzed sera of dogs, we found α-B. miyamotoi GlpQ antibody seroprevalence in tick-free dogs (n = 10) and in tick-exposed dogs (n = 19) with 2/10 and 8/19, respectively. Thus, our results indicate that GlpQ-based B. miyamotoi serology holds neither specificity nor sensitivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Tick-Borne Diseases Research)

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15 pages, 2651 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Anaplasma and Theileria Pathogens in Cattle of Lambwe Valley, Kenya: A Case for Pro-Active Surveillance in the Wildlife–Livestock Interface

by Michael N. Okal, Brenda Kisia Odhiambo, Peter Otieno, Joel L. Bargul, Daniel Masiga, Jandouwe Villinger and Shewit Kalayou

Microorganisms 2020, 8(11), 1830; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8111830 - 20 Nov 2020

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3183

Abstract

Tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) are major constraints to livestock production and a threat to public health in Africa. This cross-sectional study investigated the risk of infection with TBPs in cattle of Lambwe Valley, Kenya. Blood samples of 680 zebu cattle from 95 herds in [...] Read more.

Tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) are major constraints to livestock production and a threat to public health in Africa. This cross-sectional study investigated the risk of infection with TBPs in cattle of Lambwe Valley, Kenya. Blood samples of 680 zebu cattle from 95 herds in six geospatial clusters within 5 km of Ruma National Park were screened for bacterial and protozoan TBPs by high-resolution melting analysis and sequencing of PCR products. We detected Anaplasma bovis (17.4%), Anaplasma platys (16.9%), Anaplasma marginale (0.6%), Theileria velifera (40%), and Theileria mutans (25.7%), as well as an Anaplasma sp. (11.6%) that matched recently reported Anaplasma sp. sequences from Ethiopia. Babesia, Rickettsia, and Ehrlichia spp. were not detected. The animal and herd-level prevalences for TBPs were 78.5% (95% confidence intervals (CI): 75.3, 81.5) and 95.8% (95% CI: 91.8, 99.8), respectively. About 31.6% of cattle were co-infected with 13 combinations of TBPs. The prevalence of TBPs differed between clusters and age, but the risk of infection was not associated with sex, herd size, or the distance of homesteads from Ruma. This study adds insight into the epidemiology of TBPs around Ruma and highlights the need for proactive surveillance of TBPs in livestock–wildlife interfaces. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Tick-Borne Diseases Research)

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8 pages, 234 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Seroprevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi in Stray Dogs from Southern Italy

by Paola Galluzzo, Francesca Grippi, Santina Di Bella, Francesco Santangelo, Sonia Sciortino, Alessandra Castiglia, Carmela Sciacca, Maria Arnone, Rosa Alduina and Giuseppina Chiarenza

Microorganisms 2020, 8(11), 1688; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8111688 - 30 Oct 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2191

Abstract

Borrelia burgdorferi is a bacterial pathogen transmitted by Ixodes ticks and is responsible for Lyme disease in both humans and dogs. The aim of this work was to evaluate B. burgdorferi diffusion among stray dogs in Palermo (Sicily, Italy) by serological methods in [...] Read more.

Borrelia burgdorferi is a bacterial pathogen transmitted by Ixodes ticks and is responsible for Lyme disease in both humans and dogs. The aim of this work was to evaluate B. burgdorferi diffusion among stray dogs in Palermo (Sicily, Italy) by serological methods in order to study the risk factors associated with the infection. Serum and blood samples of 316 dogs were collected from a shelter in Palermo, and were analyzed for the presence of antibodies against B. burgdorferi by indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA), and of the ospA gene by real-time PCR, respectively. Seventeen sera (5.4%) were positive for the antibodies via IFA and one blood (0.3%) for ospA via real time PCR. On the basis of serological results, the evaluation of the potential risk factors (sex, age, breed and coat color) was carried out. The multivariate analysis indicated that male sex is a factor significantly associated with B. burgdorferi seropositivity. This study confirms that male dogs have a higher risk of developing the disease than females, and represents the first investigation on the spread of B. burgdorferi among stray dogs in Sicily. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Tick-Borne Diseases Research)

15 pages, 2035 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Molecular Approach for the Diagnosis of Blood and Skin Canine Filarioids

by Younes Laidoudi, Samia Bedjaoui, Hacène Medkour, Maria Stefania Latrofa, Abdeslam Mekroud, Idir Bitam, Bernard Davoust, Domenico Otranto and Oleg Mediannikov

Microorganisms 2020, 8(11), 1671; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8111671 - 28 Oct 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2651

Abstract

The zoonotic Onchocerca lupi and tick-transmitted filarioids of the genus Cercopithifilaria remain less well known due to the difficulties in accessing to skin samples as target tissues. Here, we proposed a molecular approach reliying on multiplex qPCR assays that allow the rapid identification [...] Read more.

The zoonotic Onchocerca lupi and tick-transmitted filarioids of the genus Cercopithifilaria remain less well known due to the difficulties in accessing to skin samples as target tissues. Here, we proposed a molecular approach reliying on multiplex qPCR assays that allow the rapid identification of filarioids from canine blood, skin, and tick samples. This includes two newly developed duplex qPCR tests, the first one targeting filarial and C. grassii DNA (CanFil-C. grassii). and the second qPCR assay designed for the detection of Cercopithifilaria bainae and Cercopithifilaria sp. II DNAs (C. bainae-C.spII). The third one is a triplex TaqMan cox 1 assay targeting DNA of blood microfilariae (e.g., Dirofilaria immitis, Dirofilaria repens and Acanthocheilonema reconditum). The novel duplex qPCRs developed were validated in silico and by screening of known DNA collection. The qPCR assays were also used for screening the blood and tick samples of 72 dogs from Algeria. This allowed the identification of canine filariasis infection with 100% of specificity and 89.47% and 100% of sensitivity from naturally infected blood and tick samples, respectively. The prevalences of 26.39% for D. immitis and 5.56% for both D. repens and A. reconditum were reported in blood and tick samples. Cercopithifilaria DNAs were detected only in tick samples, with a prevalence of 4.17% and 5.56% for C. bainae and Cercopithifilaria sp. II, respectively. Co-infections were diagnosed in 6.94% and 13.89% of blood and tick samples, respectively. Whereas all samples were negative for C. grassii DNA. The use of engorged ticks instead of blood and skin samples could be an easier option for the surveillance of all canine filarioids herein investigated. The multiplex qPCR assays herein validated were shown to be useful in the detection of filarial co-infections by overcoming sequencing of positive samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Tick-Borne Diseases Research)

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10 pages, 668 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification and Characterization of “Candidatus Rickettsia Thierseensis”, a Novel Spotted Fever Group Rickettsia Species Detected in Austria

by Anna-Margarita Schötta, Michiel Wijnveld, Dieter Höss, Gerold Stanek, Hannes Stockinger and Mateusz Markowicz

Microorganisms 2020, 8(11), 1670; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8111670 - 28 Oct 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2287

Abstract

Rickettsia spp. are the second most common pathogens detected in Ixodes ricinus ticks in Austria after Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato. Species belonging to the spotted fever group (SFG) are the causative agents for tick-borne rickettsiosis across the world. So far, only four SFG [...] Read more.

Rickettsia spp. are the second most common pathogens detected in Ixodes ricinus ticks in Austria after Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato. Species belonging to the spotted fever group (SFG) are the causative agents for tick-borne rickettsiosis across the world. So far, only four SFG Rickettsia spp. were detected in Austria, namely R. helvetica, R. raoultii, R. monacensis and R. slovaca. Here, we describe the identification of a new SFG Rickettsia species detected in an I. ricinus tick. Sequencing of various rickettsial genes revealed a nucleotide sequence similarity of 99.6%, 98.5%, 97.3% and 98.5% to the gltA, ompA, ompB, and sca4 genes, respectively, of known and validated species. Additionally, sequencing of the htrA gene and 23S-5S intergenic spacer region also only showed 99.6% and 99.2%, respectively, similarity to known species. Therefore, and in accordance with current criteria for Rickettsia species discrimination, we hereby describe a new species of the SFG with putative pathogenic potential. We propose the name “Candidatus Rickettsia thierseensis” based on the village Thiersee in the Austrian province of Tyrol, where the carrying tick was found. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Tick-Borne Diseases Research)

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21 pages, 3171 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Assessment of the Molecular Diversity of Ticks and Tick-Borne Microorganisms of Small Ruminants in Pakistan

by Abdul Ghafar, Adil Khan, Alejandro Cabezas-Cruz, Charles G. Gauci, Sadaf Niaz, Sultan Ayaz, Lourdes Mateos-Hernández, Clemence Galon, Nasreen Nasreen, Sara Moutailler, Robin B. Gasser and Abdul Jabbar

Microorganisms 2020, 8(9), 1428; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8091428 - 17 Sep 2020

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4776

Abstract

This study investigated ticks and tick-borne microorganisms of small ruminants from five districts of the Federally Administered Tribal Area (FATA) of Pakistan. Morphological (n = 104) and molecular (n = 54) characterization of the ticks revealed the presence of six ixodid [...] Read more.

This study investigated ticks and tick-borne microorganisms of small ruminants from five districts of the Federally Administered Tribal Area (FATA) of Pakistan. Morphological (n = 104) and molecular (n = 54) characterization of the ticks revealed the presence of six ixodid ticks: Rhipicephalus (Rh.) haemaphysaloides, Rh. microplus, Rh. turanicus, Haemaphysalis (Hs.) punctata, Hs. sulcata and Hyalomma anatolicum. Phylogenetic analyses of nucleotide sequence data for two mitochondrial (16S and cytochrome c oxidase 1) and one nuclear (second internal transcribed spacer) DNA regions provided strong support for the grouping of the six tick species identified in this study. Microfluidic real-time PCR, employing multiple pre-validated nuclear and mitochondrial genetic markers, detected 11 potential pathogens and endosymbionts in 72.2% of the ticks (n = 54) tested. Rickettsia (R.) massiliae was the most common pathogen found (42.6% of ticks) followed by Theileria spp. (33.3%), Anaplasma (A.) ovis and R. slovaca (25.9% each). Anaplasma centrale, A. marginale, Ehrlichia spp., R. aeschlimannii, R. conorii and endosymbionts (Francisella- and Coxiella-like) were detected at much lower rates (1.9–22.2%) in ticks. Ticks from goats (83.9%) carried significantly higher microorganisms than those from sheep (56.5%). This study demonstrates that ticks of small ruminants from the FATA are carrying multiple microorganisms of veterinary and medical health significance and provides the basis for future investigations of ticks and tick-borne diseases of animals and humans in this and neighboring regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Tick-Borne Diseases Research)

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11 pages, 579 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Assessing the Immunochromatographic Test Strip for Serological Detection of Bovine Babesiosis in Uganda

by Dickson Stuart Tayebwa, Amany Magdy Beshbishy, Gaber El-Saber Batiha, Mariam Komugisha, Byaruhanga Joseph, Patrick Vudriko, Ramadan Yahia, Luay Alkazmi, Helal F. Hetta, Naoaki Yokoyama and Ikuo Igarashi

Microorganisms 2020, 8(8), 1110; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8081110 - 24 Jul 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2843

Abstract

In Uganda, bovine babesiosis continues to cause losses to the livestock industry because of shortages of cheap, quick, and reliable diagnostic tools to guide prescription measures. In this study, the presence of antibodies to Babesia bigemina and Babesia bovis in 401 bovine blood [...] Read more.

In Uganda, bovine babesiosis continues to cause losses to the livestock industry because of shortages of cheap, quick, and reliable diagnostic tools to guide prescription measures. In this study, the presence of antibodies to Babesia bigemina and Babesia bovis in 401 bovine blood samples obtained from eastern and central areas of Uganda were detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) and immunochromatographic test strips (ICTs). The ELISA and ICT test used targeted the B. bigemina C-terminal rhoptry-associated protein (RAP-1/CT17) and B. bovis spherical body protein-4 (SPB-4). Using ELISA, single-ICT and dual-ICT, positive samples for B. bovis were detected in 25 (6.2%), 17 (4.3%), and 14 (3.7%) samples respectively, and positive samples for B. bigemina were detected in 34 (8.4%), 27 (6.7%), and 25 (6.2%), respectively. Additionally, a total of 13 animals (3.2%) had a mixed infection. The correlation between ELISA and single-ICT strips results revealed slight agreement with kappa values ranging from 0.088 to 0.191 between both methods, while the comparison between dual-ICT and single-ICT results showed very good agreement with kappa values >0.80. This study documented the seroprevalence of bovine babesiosis in central and eastern Uganda, and showed that ICT could, after further optimization, be a useful rapid diagnostic test for the diagnosis of bovine babesiosis in field settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Tick-Borne Diseases Research)

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16 pages, 1289 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Tick Surface Decontamination Methods

by Angeline Hoffmann, Volker Fingerle and Matthias Noll

Microorganisms 2020, 8(7), 987; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8070987 - 30 Jun 2020

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3115

Abstract

Various microbial pathogens have been found in ticks such as Ixodes ricinus. However, most studies assessed tick microbiomes without prior decontamination of the tick surface, which may alter the results and mislead conclusions regarding the composition of the tick-borne microbiome. The aim [...] Read more.

Various microbial pathogens have been found in ticks such as Ixodes ricinus. However, most studies assessed tick microbiomes without prior decontamination of the tick surface, which may alter the results and mislead conclusions regarding the composition of the tick-borne microbiome. The aim of this study was to test four different decontamination methods, namely (i.) 70% ethanol, (ii.) DNA Away, (iii.) 5% sodium hypochlorite and (iv.) Reactive Skin Decontamination Lotion (RSDL), which have been previously reported for tick surface and animal or human skin decontamination. To test the efficiency of decontamination, we contaminated each tick with a defined mixture of Escherichia coli, Micrococcus luteus, Pseudomonas fluorescens, dog saliva and human sweat. No contamination was used as a negative control, and for a positive control, a no decontamination strategy was carried out. After nucleic acid extraction, the recovery rate of contaminants was determined for RNA and DNA samples by qPCR and tick-borne microbiome analyses by bacterial 16S rRNA and 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. Ticks treated with 5% sodium hypochlorite revealed the lowest number of contaminants followed by DNA Away, RSDL and 70% ethanol. Moreover, tick microbiomes after 5% sodium hypochlorite decontamination clustered with negative controls. Therefore, the efficiency of decontamination was optimal with 5% sodium hypochlorite and is recommended for upcoming studies to address the unbiased detection of tick-borne pathogens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Tick-Borne Diseases Research)

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15 pages, 2292 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genotypic Analysis of Piroplasms and Associated Pathogens from Ticks Infesting Cattle in Korea

by Min-Goo Seo, Oh-Deog Kwon and Dongmi Kwak

Microorganisms 2020, 8(5), 728; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8050728 - 13 May 2020

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2733

Abstract

Tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) impose an important limitation to livestock production worldwide, especially in subtropical and tropical areas. Earlier studies in Korea have examined TBPs residing in ticks and animals; however, information on multiple TBPs in ticks infesting cattle is lacking. This study assessed [...] Read more.

Tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) impose an important limitation to livestock production worldwide, especially in subtropical and tropical areas. Earlier studies in Korea have examined TBPs residing in ticks and animals; however, information on multiple TBPs in ticks infesting cattle is lacking. This study assessed the prevalence of TBPs in ticks parasitizing cattle. A total of 576 ticks, including 340 adults and 236 nymphs, were collected from cattle in Korea between 2014 and 2018. All ticks collected were identified as Haemaphysalis longicornis based on their morphological and molecular characteristics. Among piroplasms and other tick-associated pathogens, seven TBP genes, namely Theileria orientalis (5.0%), Anaplasma bovis (2.3%), Anaplasma capra (4.7%), Anaplasma phagocytophilum-like Anaplasma spp. (APL) clades A (1.9%) and B (0.5%), Ehrlichia canis (1.6%), and Candidatus Rickettsia longicornii (17.5%), were detected. Bartonella spp. and severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus were not found. To our knowledge, this is the first study to report the presence of the pathogens T. orientalis major piroplasm surface protein genotypes 3 and 7, A. capra, and APL in ticks from Korea. Cattle ticks may be maintenance hosts for many TBPs, and veterinary and medical clinicians should be aware of their high probability of infection and clinical complexity in humans. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Tick-Borne Diseases Research)

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12 pages, 1345 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Molecular Identification of Borrelia afzelii from Ticks Parasitizing Domestic and Wild Animals in South Korea

by Min-Goo Seo, Oh-Deog Kwon and Dongmi Kwak

Microorganisms 2020, 8(5), 649; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8050649 - 29 Apr 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2556

Abstract

Lyme borreliosis is one of the most prevalent tick-borne infectious zoonotic diseases caused by spirochetes of the Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato group. The present study assessed the risk factors and prevalence of Lyme borreliosis in ticks parasitizing domestic and wild animals. A total [...] Read more.

Lyme borreliosis is one of the most prevalent tick-borne infectious zoonotic diseases caused by spirochetes of the Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato group. The present study assessed the risk factors and prevalence of Lyme borreliosis in ticks parasitizing domestic and wild animals. A total of 589 ticks (329 tick pools) collected from animals were identified as Haemaphysalis longicornis, (85.7%), H. flava (10.0%), and Ixodes nipponensis (4.3%) using morphological and molecular methods in South Korea. In this study, the 5S–23S gene sequences of B. afzelii (6/329, 1.8%) were detected in ticks taken from mammals, including ticks from horses (2/147 pools, 1.4%), wild boar (1/19 pools, 5.3%), native Korean goats (NKG, 2/34 pools, 5.9%), and Korean water deer (1/129 pools, 0.8%). Unfortunately, ospA, pyrG, and flagellin genes were not able to be amplified in the present study. To our knowledge, our results are the first inclusive data available for B. afzelii circulation in several tick species taken from NKG, horses, and wild boar in South Korea. We believe that the current findings extend our knowledge of the distribution and possible vector spectrum of Borrelia spp. We recommend continuous evaluation of the potential public health threat posed by Borrelia infected ticks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Tick-Borne Diseases Research)

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7 pages, 216 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multicenter Evaluation of the C6 Lyme ELISA Kit for the Diagnosis of Lyme Disease

by Silvia Zannoli, Michela Fantini, Simona Semprini, Barbara Marchini, Barbara Ceccarelli, Monica Sparacino, Pasqua Schiavone, Anna Belgrano, Maurizio Ruscio, Martina Gobbetti, Maira Nicoletti, Eva Robatscher, Elisabetta Pagani and Vittorio Sambri

Microorganisms 2020, 8(3), 457; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8030457 - 24 Mar 2020

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2514

Abstract

Lyme disease (LD), caused by infection with Borrelia burgdorferi, is the most common tick-borne infection in many regions of Eurasia. Antibody detection is the most frequently used laboratory test, favoring a two-step serodiagnostic algorithm; immunoenzymatic detection of antibodies to C6 has been [...] Read more.

Lyme disease (LD), caused by infection with Borrelia burgdorferi, is the most common tick-borne infection in many regions of Eurasia. Antibody detection is the most frequently used laboratory test, favoring a two-step serodiagnostic algorithm; immunoenzymatic detection of antibodies to C6 has been shown to perform similarly to a standard two-step workflow. The aim of this study was the performance evaluation of the C6 Lyme ELISA kit compared to a standard two-step algorithm in three laboratories located in the northeastern region of Italy which cater to areas with different LD epidemiology. A total of 804 samples were tested, of which 695 gave concordant results between C6 testing and routine workflow (564 negative, 131 positive). Wherever available, clinical presentation and additional laboratory tests were analyzed to solve discrepancies. The C6 based method showed a good concordance with the standard two-step algorithm (Cohen’s κ = 0.619), however, the distribution of discrepancies seems to point towards a slightly lower specificity of C6 testing, which is supported by literature and could impact on patient management. The C6 ELISA, therefore, is not an ideal stand-alone test; however, if integrated into a two-step algorithm, it might play a part in achieving a sensitive, specific laboratory diagnosis of LD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Tick-Borne Diseases Research)

Review

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11 pages, 1067 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Impact of Tick-Borne Diseases on the Bone

by Imran Farooq and Tara J. Moriarty

Microorganisms 2021, 9(3), 663; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9030663 - 23 Mar 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 7636

Abstract

Tick-borne infectious diseases can affect many tissues and organs including bone, one of the most multifunctional structures in the human body. There is a scarcity of data regarding the impact of tick-borne pathogens on bone. The aim of this review was to survey [...] Read more.

Tick-borne infectious diseases can affect many tissues and organs including bone, one of the most multifunctional structures in the human body. There is a scarcity of data regarding the impact of tick-borne pathogens on bone. The aim of this review was to survey existing research literature on this topic. The search was performed using PubMed and Google Scholar search engines. From our search, we were able to find evidence of eight tick-borne diseases (Anaplasmosis, Ehrlichiosis, Babesiosis, Lyme disease, Bourbon virus disease, Colorado tick fever disease, Tick-borne encephalitis, and Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever) affecting the bone. Pathological bone effects most commonly associated with tick-borne infections were disruption of bone marrow function and bone loss. Most research to date on the effects of tick-borne pathogen infections on bone has been quite preliminary. Further investigation of this topic is warranted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Tick-Borne Diseases Research)

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13 pages, 1115 KiB

Open AccessReview

Borrelia miyamotoi—An Emerging Human Tick-Borne Pathogen in Europe

by Katarzyna Kubiak, Magdalena Szczotko and Małgorzata Dmitryjuk

Microorganisms 2021, 9(1), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9010154 - 12 Jan 2021

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4420

Abstract

Borrelia miyamotoi is classified as a relapsing fever spirochete. Although B. miyamotoi is genetically and ecologically distinct from Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, both microorganisms are transmitted by the same Ixodes tick species. B. miyamotoi was detected in I. persulcatus ticks in 1994 in [...] Read more.

Borrelia miyamotoi is classified as a relapsing fever spirochete. Although B. miyamotoi is genetically and ecologically distinct from Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, both microorganisms are transmitted by the same Ixodes tick species. B. miyamotoi was detected in I. persulcatus ticks in 1994 in Japan. A phylogenetic analysis based on selected sequences of B. miyamotoi genome revealed genetic differences between isolates from Asia, North America, and Europe, which are clearly separated into three genotypes. Symptomatic human cases of Borrelia miyamotoi disease (BMD) were first reported in 2011 in Russia and then in North America, Europe, and Asia. The most common clinical manifestation of BMD is fever with flu-like symptoms. Several differences in rare symptoms (thrombocytopenia, monocytosis, cerebrospinal fluid pleocytosis, or symptoms related to the central nervous system) have been noted among cases caused by Asian, European, and American types of B. miyamotoi. BMD should be considered in the diagnosis of patients after tick bites, particularly with meningoencephalitis, without anti-Borrelia antibodies in the cerebrospinal fluid. This review describes the biology, ecology, and potential of B. miyamotoi as a tick-borne pathogen of public health concern, with particular emphasis on Europe. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Tick-Borne Diseases Research)

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28 pages, 4416 KiB

Open AccessReview

Expansion of Tick-Borne Rickettsioses in the World

by Mariusz Piotrowski and Anna Rymaszewska

Microorganisms 2020, 8(12), 1906; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8121906 - 30 Nov 2020

Cited by 41 | Viewed by 4035

Abstract

Tick-borne rickettsioses are caused by obligate intracellular bacteria belonging to the spotted fever group of the genus Rickettsia. These infections are among the oldest known diseases transmitted by vectors. In the last three decades there has been a rapid increase in the [...] Read more.

Tick-borne rickettsioses are caused by obligate intracellular bacteria belonging to the spotted fever group of the genus Rickettsia. These infections are among the oldest known diseases transmitted by vectors. In the last three decades there has been a rapid increase in the recognition of this disease complex. This unusual expansion of information was mainly caused by the development of molecular diagnostic techniques that have facilitated the identification of new and previously recognized rickettsiae. A lot of currently known bacteria of the genus Rickettsia have been considered nonpathogenic for years, and moreover, many new species have been identified with unknown pathogenicity. The genus Rickettsia is distributed all over the world. Many Rickettsia species are present on several continents. The geographical distribution of rickettsiae is related to their vectors. New cases of rickettsioses and new locations, where the presence of these bacteria is recognized, are still being identified. The variety and rapid evolution of the distribution and density of ticks and diseases which they transmit shows us the scale of the problem. This review article presents a comparison of the current understanding of the geographic distribution of pathogenic Rickettsia species to that of the beginning of the century. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Tick-Borne Diseases Research)

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12 pages, 324 KiB

Open AccessReview

Interrupted Blood Feeding in Ticks: Causes and Consequences

by Djamel Tahir, Leon Meyer, Josephus Fourie, Frans Jongejan, Thomas Mather, Valérie Choumet, Byron Blagburn, Reinhard K. Straubinger and Marie Varloud

Microorganisms 2020, 8(6), 910; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8060910 - 16 Jun 2020

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 5361

Abstract

Ticks are obligate hematophagous arthropods and act as vectors for a great variety of pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and helminths. Some tick-borne viruses, such as Powassan virus and tick-borne encephalitis virus, are transmissible within 15–60 min after tick attachment. However, a minimum [...] Read more.

Ticks are obligate hematophagous arthropods and act as vectors for a great variety of pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and helminths. Some tick-borne viruses, such as Powassan virus and tick-borne encephalitis virus, are transmissible within 15–60 min after tick attachment. However, a minimum of 3–24 h of tick attachment is necessary to effectively transmit bacterial agents such as Ehrlichia spp., Anaplasma spp., and Rickettsia spp. to a new host. Longer transmission periods were reported for Borrelia spp. and protozoans such as Babesia spp., which require a minimum duration of 24–48 h of tick attachment for maturation and migration of the pathogen. Laboratory observations indicate that the probability of transmission of tick-borne pathogens increases with the duration an infected tick is allowed to remain attached to the host. However, the transmission time may be shortened when partially fed infected ticks detach from their initial host and reattach to a new host, on which they complete their engorgement. For example, early transmission of tick-borne pathogens (e.g., Rickettsia rickettsii, Borrelia burgdorferi, and Babesia canis) and a significantly shorter transmission time were demonstrated in laboratory experiments by interrupted blood feeding. The relevance of such situations under field conditions remains poorly documented. In this review, we explore parameters of, and causes leading to, spontaneous interrupted feeding in nature, as well as the effects of this behavior on the minimum time required for transmission of tick-borne pathogens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Tick-Borne Diseases Research)

Other

Jump to: Research, Review

11 pages, 2514 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

First Cases of Natural Infections with Borrelia hispanica in Two Dogs and a Cat from Europe

by Gabriele Margos, Nikola Pantchev, Majda Globokar, Javier Lopez, Jaume Rodon, Leticia Hernandez, Heike Herold, Noelia Salas, Anna Civit and Volker Fingerle

Microorganisms 2020, 8(8), 1251; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8081251 - 18 Aug 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2513

Abstract

Canine cases of relapsing fever (RF) borreliosis have been described in Israel and the USA, where two RF species, Borrelia turicatae and Borrelia hermsii, can cause similar clinical signs to the Borrelia persica in dogs and cats reported from Israel, including fever, [...] Read more.

Canine cases of relapsing fever (RF) borreliosis have been described in Israel and the USA, where two RF species, Borrelia turicatae and Borrelia hermsii, can cause similar clinical signs to the Borrelia persica in dogs and cats reported from Israel, including fever, lethargy, anorexia, thrombocytopenia, and spirochetemia. In this report, we describe the first clinical cases of two dogs and a cat from Spain (Cordoba, Valencia, and Seville) caused by the RF species Borrelia hispanica. Spirochetes were present in the blood smears of all three animals, and clinical signs included lethargy, pale mucosa, anorexia, cachexia, or mild abdominal respiration. Laboratory findings, like thrombocytopenia in both dogs, may have been caused by co-infecting pathogens (i.e., Babesia vogeli, confirmed in one dog). Anemia was noticed in one of the dogs and in the cat. Borrelia hispanica was confirmed as an infecting agent by molecular analysis of the 16S rRNA locus. Molecular analysis of housekeeping genes and phylogenetic analyses, as well as successful in vitro culture of the feline isolate confirmed the causative agent as B. hispanica. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Tick-Borne Diseases Research)

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