Pathogens and Antimicrobial Drug Resistance in the Food Chain

A special issue of Microorganisms (ISSN 2076-2607). This special issue belongs to the section "Food Microbiology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 February 2023) | Viewed by 31153

Special Issue Editor

Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Animal Health (CIISA), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Lisbon, Av. da Universidade Técnica de Lisboa, 1300-477 Lisbon, Portugal
Interests: food safety; foodborne pathogens; microbial pathogenesis, traditional food products
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Antimicrobial drug resistance (AMDR) is considered to be one of the most serious global threats to human and animal health of the 21st century, due to the lack of therapeutic options.

Meanwhile, there is an increasing concern regarding the role of the food chain as a reservoir and disseminator of microbial pathogens and AMDR.

Therefore, active surveillance is fundamental to assess for the presence of foodborne pathogens, as well as the occurrence of resistant bacteria and resistance determinants, from the farm to the fork.

High-level publications regarding the presence of foodborne pathogens, resistant bacteria, and possible pathways for transmission along the food chain are crucial to overcome this global challenge.

Dr. Teresa Semedo-Lemsaddek
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • foodborne pathogens
  • antimicrobial drug resistance
  • food chain
  • dissemination
  • challenge
  • food safety

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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16 pages, 984 KiB  
Article
Long-Term Effects of Single-Dose Cephalosporin or Macrolide Use on the Prevalence of AmpC and Extended-Spectrum β-Lactamase Producing Escherichia coli in the Feces of Beef Cattle
by Gizem Levent, Ashlynn Schlochtermeier, Javier Vinasco, Jenny Jennings, John Richeson, Samuel E. Ives, Keri N. Norman, Sara D. Lawhon, Guy H. Loneragan and H. Morgan Scott
Microorganisms 2022, 10(10), 2071; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10102071 - 20 Oct 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1707
Abstract
Extended-spectrum-β-lactamase (ESBL) and AmpC-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae are serious public health threats. Due to an increasing number of reports of ESBL and AmpC producing Escherichia coli in agricultural settings, it is critical to understand the relationship between the use of two of the highest priority [...] Read more.
Extended-spectrum-β-lactamase (ESBL) and AmpC-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae are serious public health threats. Due to an increasing number of reports of ESBL and AmpC producing Escherichia coli in agricultural settings, it is critical to understand the relationship between the use of two of the highest priority critically important human antibiotics (e.g., third generation cephalosporins [3GC] and macrolides) in food animals and their potential contribution to the selection of ESBL/AmpC E. coli. The objective of our randomized controlled feedlot trial was to measure the effects of ceftiofur crystalline-free acid and tulathromycin on 3GC resistant fecal E. coli populations in cattle before and at various time points after treatment up to and including at slaughter. Multi-level mixed-effects linear regression showed no effect of ceftiofur and tulathromycin on 3GC E. coli CFU counts at slaughter (Day 99); however, a significant (p < 0.05) population shift was observed from susceptible to 3GC resistant E. coli immediately after ceftiofur administration (Day 7). Among 799 fecal samples screened using selective media, 17.7% were ESBL/AmpC E. coli positive, which were further tested for phenotypic antibiotic susceptibility. The majority of the isolates from these plates were multidrug-resistant (94.3%) and expressed either AmpC (78.1%) or ESBL (28.1%) phenotype. A subset of isolates was whole-genome sequenced (n = 20) and identified to harbor chromosomal and/or plasmidal bla genes such as CMY-2, CTX-M, and TEM. Our findings show a time-dependent selection of antibiotics on 3GC-resistant E. coli. High prevalence of multidrug-resistant ESBL/AmpC E. coli found in cattle feces highlights the importance of prudent use of antibiotics in livestock. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogens and Antimicrobial Drug Resistance in the Food Chain)
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20 pages, 808 KiB  
Article
Preharvest Environmental and Management Drivers of Multidrug Resistance in Major Bacterial Zoonotic Pathogens in Pastured Poultry Flocks
by Moses B. Ayoola, Nisha Pillai, Bindu Nanduri, Michael J. Rothrock and Mahalingam Ramkumar
Microorganisms 2022, 10(9), 1703; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10091703 - 24 Aug 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1481
Abstract
Due to nutritional benefits and perceived humane ways of treating the animals, the demand for antibiotic-free pastured poultry chicken has continued to be steadily rise. Despite the non-usage of antibiotics in pastured poultry broiler production, antibiotic resistance (AR) is reported in zoonotic poultry [...] Read more.
Due to nutritional benefits and perceived humane ways of treating the animals, the demand for antibiotic-free pastured poultry chicken has continued to be steadily rise. Despite the non-usage of antibiotics in pastured poultry broiler production, antibiotic resistance (AR) is reported in zoonotic poultry pathogens. However, factors that drive multidrug resistance (MDR) in pastured poultry are not well understood. In this study, we used machine learning and deep learning approaches to predict farm management practices and physicochemical properties of feces and soil that drive MDR in zoonotic poultry pathogens. Antibiotic use in agroecosystems is known to contribute to resistance. Evaluation of the development of resistance in environments that are free of antibiotics such as the all-natural, antibiotic-free, pastured poultry production systems described here is critical to understand the background AR in the absence of any selection pressure, i.e., basal levels of resistance. We analyzed 1635 preharvest (feces and soil) samples collected from forty-two pastured poultry flocks and eleven farms in the Southeastern United States. CDC National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System guidelines were used to determine antimicrobial/multidrug resistance profiles of Salmonella, Listeria, and Campylobacter. A combination of two traditional machine learning (RandomForest and XGBoost) and three deep learning (Multi-layer Perceptron, Generative Adversarial Network, and Auto-Encoder) approaches identified critical farm management practices and environmental variables that drive multidrug resistance in poultry pathogens in broiler production systems that represents background resistance. This study enumerates management practices that contribute to AR and makes recommendations to potentially mitigate multidrug resistance and the prevalence of Salmonella and Listeria in pastured poultry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogens and Antimicrobial Drug Resistance in the Food Chain)
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17 pages, 1166 KiB  
Article
Tracking Antimicrobial Resistant E. coli from Pigs on Farm to Pork at Slaughter
by Rupert Bassitta, Hanna Kronfeld, Johann Bauer, Karin Schwaiger and Christina Hölzel
Microorganisms 2022, 10(8), 1485; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10081485 - 23 Jul 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1559
Abstract
Antimicrobial-resistant bacteria might be transferred via the foodchain. However, that risk is rarely tracked along different production steps, e.g., from pigs at farm to meat. To close that gap, we performed a prospective study in four conventional and two organic farms from the [...] Read more.
Antimicrobial-resistant bacteria might be transferred via the foodchain. However, that risk is rarely tracked along different production steps, e.g., from pigs at farm to meat. To close that gap, we performed a prospective study in four conventional and two organic farms from the moment pigs entered the farm until meat sampling at slaughter. Antimicrobial use was recorded (0 to 11 agents). Antimicrobial susceptibility (AMS) against 26 antibiotics, including critically important substances, was tested by microdilution, and tetA-tetB-sulI-sulII-strA-strB-bla-CTXM-qacEΔ1 were included in PCR-genotyping. From 244 meat samples of 122 pigs, 54 samples (22.1%) from 45 animals were positive for E. coli (n = 198). MICs above the breakpoint/ECOFF occurred for all antibiotics except meropenem. One isolate from organic farming was markedly resistant against beta-lactams including fourth-generation cefalosporines. AMS patterns differed remarkably between isolates from one piece of meat, varying from monoresistance to 16-fold multiresistance. Amplicon-typing revealed high similarity between isolates at slaughter and on farm. Prior pig lots andeven the farmer might serve as reservoirs for E. coli isolated from meat at slaughter. However, AMS phenotyping and genotyping indicate that antimicrobial resistance in E. coli is highly dynamic, impairing reliable prediction of health risks from findings along the production chain. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogens and Antimicrobial Drug Resistance in the Food Chain)
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20 pages, 2050 KiB  
Article
Antibiotic Resistance Properties among Pseudomonas spp. Associated with Salmon Processing Environments
by Gunn Merethe Bjørge Thomassen, Thorben Reiche, Christine Eikås Tennfjord and Lisbeth Mehli
Microorganisms 2022, 10(7), 1420; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10071420 - 14 Jul 2022
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3277
Abstract
Continuous monitoring of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria along the food chain is crucial for the assessment of human health risks. Uncritical use of antibiotics in farming over years can be one of the main reasons for increased antibiotic resistance in bacteria. In this [...] Read more.
Continuous monitoring of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria along the food chain is crucial for the assessment of human health risks. Uncritical use of antibiotics in farming over years can be one of the main reasons for increased antibiotic resistance in bacteria. In this study, we aimed to classify 222 presumptive Pseudomonas isolates originating from a salmon processing environment, and to examine the phenotypic and genotypic antibiotic resistance profiles of these isolates. Of all the analyzed isolates 68% belonged to Pseudomonas, and the most abundant species were Pseudomonas fluorescens, Pseudomonas azotoformans, Pseudomonas gessardii, Pseudomonas libanesis, Pseudomonas lundensis, Pseudomonas cedrina and Pseudomonas extremaustralis based on sequencing of the rpoD gene. As many as 27% of Pseudomonas isolates could not be classified to species level. Phenotypic susceptibility analysis by disc diffusion method revealed a high level of resistance towards the antibiotics ampicillin, amoxicillin, cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, imipenem, and the fish farming relevant antibiotics florfenicol and oxolinic acid among the Pseudomonas isolates. Whole genome sequencing and subsequent analysis of AMR determinants by ResFinder and CARD revealed that no isolates harbored any acquired resistance determinants, but all isolates carried variants of genes known from P. aeruginosa to be involved in multidrug efflux pump systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogens and Antimicrobial Drug Resistance in the Food Chain)
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17 pages, 4012 KiB  
Article
Genome-Wide Association Study of Nucleotide Variants Associated with Resistance to Nine Antimicrobials in Mycoplasma bovis
by Matthew Waldner, Andrea Kinnear, Elhem Yacoub, Tim McAllister, Karen Register, Changxi Li and Murray Jelinski
Microorganisms 2022, 10(7), 1366; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10071366 - 06 Jul 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1667
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) studies of Mycoplasma bovis have generally focused on specific loci versus using a genome-wide association study (GWAS) approach. A GWAS approach, using two different models, was applied to 194 Mycoplasma bovis genomes. Both a fixed effects linear model (FEM) and [...] Read more.
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) studies of Mycoplasma bovis have generally focused on specific loci versus using a genome-wide association study (GWAS) approach. A GWAS approach, using two different models, was applied to 194 Mycoplasma bovis genomes. Both a fixed effects linear model (FEM) and a linear mixed model (LMM) identified associations between nucleotide variants (NVs) and antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) phenotypes. The AMR phenotypes represented fluoroquinolones, tetracyclines, phenicols, and macrolides. Both models identified known and novel NVs associated (Bonferroni adjusted p < 0.05) with AMR. Fluoroquinolone resistance was associated with multiple NVs, including previously identified mutations in gyrA and parC. NVs in the 30S ribosomal protein 16S were associated with tetracycline resistance, whereas NVs in 5S rRNA, 23S rRNA, and 50S ribosomal proteins were associated with phenicol and macrolide resistance. For all antimicrobial classes, resistance was associated with NVs in genes coding for ABC transporters and other membrane proteins, tRNA-ligases, peptidases, and transposases, suggesting a NV-based multifactorial model of AMR in M. bovis. This study was the largest collection of North American M. bovis isolates used with a GWAS for the sole purpose of identifying novel and non-antimicrobial-target NVs associated with AMR. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogens and Antimicrobial Drug Resistance in the Food Chain)
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13 pages, 1170 KiB  
Article
Antimicrobial Susceptibility and Molecular Characterization of Escherichia coli Recovered from Milk and Related Samples
by Frederick Adzitey, Saniyatu Yussif, Roland Ayamga, Sumaila Zuberu, Francis Addy, Gideon Adu-Bonsu, Nurul Huda and Rovina Kobun
Microorganisms 2022, 10(7), 1335; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10071335 - 01 Jul 2022
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 2633
Abstract
There is a rising concern about illnesses resulting from milk consumption due to contamination by pathogenic microorganisms including Escherichia coli. This study examined the occurrence and antimicrobial susceptibility of E. coli isolated from cow milk and related samples. Furthermore, partial sequencing was done [...] Read more.
There is a rising concern about illnesses resulting from milk consumption due to contamination by pathogenic microorganisms including Escherichia coli. This study examined the occurrence and antimicrobial susceptibility of E. coli isolated from cow milk and related samples. Furthermore, partial sequencing was done to ascertain the genetic relatedness and possible cross contamination among the samples. In all, 250 samples, that is, 50 each of raw milk, cow teat, milkers’ hands, milking utensils, and fecal matter of cows, were cultured for the identification of E. coli. E. coli was detected in 101/250 samples (40.4%). Milk and fecal samples recorded the highest percentages of 68.0% and 66.0%, respectively. Forty-two (42) E. coli strains examined for antimicrobial resistance showed an overall 25.5% resistance, 15.0% intermediate resistance, and 59.5% susceptibility. The isolates had a high level of resistance to teicoplanin (100.0%), but were susceptible to chloramphenicol (95.2%) and azithromycin (92.9%). The Multiple Antibiotic Resistance (MAR) index pattern ranged from 0.1 to 0.5, and 40.5% exhibited multiple drug resistance. The E. coli strains formed 11 haplotypes, and a phylogenic tree analysis showed relatedness among the isolates in other African countries. This observation is an indication of cross contamination among the milk and its related samples. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogens and Antimicrobial Drug Resistance in the Food Chain)
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10 pages, 446 KiB  
Article
Antibiotic Resistance in Campylobacter spp. Isolated from Broiler Chicken Meat and Human Patients in Estonia
by Triin Tedersoo, Mati Roasto, Mihkel Mäesaar, Liidia Häkkinen, Veljo Kisand, Marina Ivanova, Marikki Heidi Valli and Kadrin Meremäe
Microorganisms 2022, 10(5), 1067; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10051067 - 22 May 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2087
Abstract
Poultry meat is considered the most important source of Campylobacter spp. Because of rising antimicrobial resistance in Campylobacter spp., this study investigated the antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter isolates from fresh broiler chicken meat originating from the Baltic countries sold in Estonian retail settings. [...] Read more.
Poultry meat is considered the most important source of Campylobacter spp. Because of rising antimicrobial resistance in Campylobacter spp., this study investigated the antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter isolates from fresh broiler chicken meat originating from the Baltic countries sold in Estonian retail settings. Additionally, human clinical isolates obtained from patients with Campylobacter enteritis in Estonia were analysed. The aim of this study was to investigate the susceptibility of Campylobacter spp. to nalidixic acid, ciprofloxacin, tetracycline, streptomycin, erythromycin and gentamicin. The broth microdilution method with the EUCAMP2 panel was used for MIC determination and antimicrobial mechanisms were analysed using WGS data. A total of 46 Campylobacter strains were analysed, of which 26 (42.6%) originated from Lithuanian, 16 (26.2%) from Latvian, and 4 (6.6%) from Estonian fresh broiler chicken meat. In addition, 15 (24.6%) Campylobacter strains of patients with campylobacteriosis were tested. The antimicrobial resistance patterns of Campylobacter spp. isolated from fresh broiler chicken meat samples of Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian origin collected in Estonian retail, and from patients with Campylobacter enteric infections, were determined. A total of 46 (75%) of the isolates tested were C. jejuni and 15 (25%) were C. coli. Campylobacter resistance was highest to nalidixic acid (90.2% of strains) and ciprofloxacin (90.2%), followed by tetracycline (57.4%), streptomycin (42.6%) and erythromycin (6.6%). All strains were sensitive to gentamicin. Additionally, antimicrobial resistance genes and point mutations were detected in 27 C. jejuni and 8 C. coli isolates previously assigned as resistant with the phenotypic method. A high antibiotic resistance of Campylobacter spp. in Lithuanian- and Latvian-origin broiler chicken meat and Estonian clinical isolates was found. Similar antibiotic resistance patterns were found for broiler chicken meat and human Campylobacter isolates. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogens and Antimicrobial Drug Resistance in the Food Chain)
22 pages, 3039 KiB  
Article
Modeling the Impact of Management Changes on the Infection Dynamics of Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli in the Broiler Production
by Evelyne Becker, Guido Correia-Carreira, Michaela Projahn and Annemarie Käsbohrer
Microorganisms 2022, 10(5), 981; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10050981 - 07 May 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1786
Abstract
Livestock animals, especially poultry, are a known reservoir for extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli (E. coli). They may enter the pen either via positive day-old chicks or via the environment. We developed a mathematical model to illustrate the entry and dissemination of [...] Read more.
Livestock animals, especially poultry, are a known reservoir for extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli (E. coli). They may enter the pen either via positive day-old chicks or via the environment. We developed a mathematical model to illustrate the entry and dissemination of resistant bacteria in a broiler pen during one fattening period in order to investigate the effectiveness of intervention measures on this infection process. Different management measures, such as varying amounts of litter, a slow-growing breed or lower stocking densities, were tested for their effects on broiler colonization. We also calculated the impact of products that may influence the microbiota in the chicks’ digestive tract, such as pre- or probiotics, feed supplements or competitive exclusion products. Our model outcomes show that a contaminated pen or positive chicks at the beginning of the fattening period can infect the entire flock. Increasing the amount of litter and decreasing the stocking density were shown to be effective in our model. Differences in the route of entry were found: if the chicks are already positive, the litter quantity must be increased to at least six times the standard of 1000 g/m2, whereas, if the pen is contaminated on the first day, three times the litter quantity is sufficient. A reduced stocking density of 20 kg/m2 had a significant effect on the incidence of infection only in a previously contaminated pen. Combinations of two or three measures were effective in both scenarios; similarly, feed additives may be beneficial in reducing the growth rate of ESBL-producing E. coli. This model is a valuable tool for evaluating interventions to reduce the transmission and spread of resistant bacteria in broiler houses. However, data are still needed to optimize the model, such as growth rates or survival data of ESBL-producing E. coli in different environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogens and Antimicrobial Drug Resistance in the Food Chain)
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17 pages, 1442 KiB  
Article
Serbian Traditional Goat Cheese: Physico-Chemical, Sensory, Hygienic and Safety Characteristics
by Katarina G. Mladenović, Mirjana Ž. Grujović, Sunčica D. Kocić-Tanackov, Sandra Bulut, Mirela Iličić, Jovana Degenek and Teresa Semedo-Lemsaddek
Microorganisms 2022, 10(1), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10010090 - 31 Dec 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1785
Abstract
This research project aimed to investigate the physico-chemical, sensory, hygienic and safety characteristics of raw goat milk, whey, brine and traditional goat cheese during the ripening period of 28 days. Physico-chemical parameters included the determination of dry matter, fat, ash, protein, pH, water [...] Read more.
This research project aimed to investigate the physico-chemical, sensory, hygienic and safety characteristics of raw goat milk, whey, brine and traditional goat cheese during the ripening period of 28 days. Physico-chemical parameters included the determination of dry matter, fat, ash, protein, pH, water activity and NaCl content. The presence of Enterobacteriaceae and fungi was estimated on milk and cheese samples, and a sensory panel evaluated the products’ features and acceptability during ripening. The results show that the cheese under study belongs to the acid full-fat cheese group. A consumer panel attributed high scores to the goat cheese, until the 21st day of ripening. After this period, the overall features altered significantly, including augmented bitterness, odor intensification and the development of molds on the surface. The presence of fungi, associated with Enterobacteriaceae, suggests that the hygiene of the production processes needs to be improved. Regarding microbial safety, the detection of putative pathogens and antibiotic resistances recommend an active surveillance of traditional foods to avoid foodborne infections and/or the dissemination of resistant microorganisms along the food chain. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogens and Antimicrobial Drug Resistance in the Food Chain)
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Review

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35 pages, 1497 KiB  
Review
Antimicrobial Drug Resistance in Poultry Production: Current Status and Innovative Strategies for Bacterial Control
by Raquel Abreu, Teresa Semedo-Lemsaddek, Eva Cunha, Luís Tavares and Manuela Oliveira
Microorganisms 2023, 11(4), 953; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11040953 - 06 Apr 2023
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6819
Abstract
The world population’s significant increase has promoted a higher consumption of poultry products, which must meet the specified demand while maintaining their quality and safety. It is well known that conventional antimicrobials (antibiotics) have been used in livestock production, including poultry, as a [...] Read more.
The world population’s significant increase has promoted a higher consumption of poultry products, which must meet the specified demand while maintaining their quality and safety. It is well known that conventional antimicrobials (antibiotics) have been used in livestock production, including poultry, as a preventive measure against or for the treatment of infectious bacterial diseases. Unfortunately, the use and misuse of these compounds has led to the development and dissemination of antimicrobial drug resistance, which is currently a serious public health concern. Multidrug-resistant bacteria are on the rise, being responsible for serious infections in humans and animals; hence, the goal of this review is to discuss the consequences of antimicrobial drug resistance in poultry production, focusing on the current status of this agroeconomic sector. Novel bacterial control strategies under investigation for application in this industry are also described. These innovative approaches include antimicrobial peptides, bacteriophages, probiotics and nanoparticles. Challenges related to the application of these methods are also discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogens and Antimicrobial Drug Resistance in the Food Chain)
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15 pages, 360 KiB  
Review
Staphylococcus aureus and MRSA in Livestock: Antimicrobial Resistance and Genetic Lineages
by Vanessa Silva, Sara Araújo, Andreia Monteiro, José Eira, José Eduardo Pereira, Luís Maltez, Gilberto Igrejas, Teresa Semedo Lemsaddek and Patricia Poeta
Microorganisms 2023, 11(1), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11010124 - 03 Jan 2023
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4925
Abstract
Animal production is associated with the frequent use of antimicrobial agents for growth promotion and for the prevention, treatment, and control of animal diseases, thus maintaining animal health and productivity. Staphylococcus aureus, in particular methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), can cause a variety [...] Read more.
Animal production is associated with the frequent use of antimicrobial agents for growth promotion and for the prevention, treatment, and control of animal diseases, thus maintaining animal health and productivity. Staphylococcus aureus, in particular methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), can cause a variety of infections from superficial skin and soft tissue infections to life-threatening septicaemia. S. aureus represents a serious public health problem in hospital and community settings, as well as an economic and animal welfare problem. Livestock-associated MRSA (LA-MRSA) was first described associated with the sequence (ST) 398 that was grouped within the clonal complex (CC) 398. Initially, LA-MRSA strains were restricted to CC398, but over the years it has become clear that its diversity is much greater and that it is constantly changing, a trend increasingly associated with multidrug resistance. Therefore, in this review, we aimed to describe the main clonal lineages associated with different production animals, such as swine, cattle, rabbits, and poultry, as well as verify the multidrug resistance associated with each animal species and clonal lineage. Overall, S. aureus ST398 still remains the most common clone among livestock and was reported in rabbits, goats, cattle, pigs, and birds, often together with spa-type t011. Nevertheless, a wide diversity of clonal lineages was reported worldwide in livestock. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogens and Antimicrobial Drug Resistance in the Food Chain)
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