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A special issue of Microorganisms (ISSN 2076-2607). This special issue belongs to the section "Antimicrobial Agents and Resistance".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 September 2023) | Viewed by 15507

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Prof. Dr. Svetla Trifonova Danova

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Department of General Microbiology, The Stephan Angeloff Institute of Microbiology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 26 Acad. Georgi Bonchev Str., 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria
Interests: probiotics; parabiotics; biological activity
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Microorganisms and their role in life on the planet have always been the focus of scientists. The COVID-19 pandemic and the growing antibiotic resistance among us have put the search for new approaches in the fight against pathogens back on the agenda. Scientists are paying more and more attention to alternative antimicrobial substances and approaches for health prevention and prophylaxis. Various groups of antimicrobials, from new antibiotics, bacteriocin-like substances to recently discussed parabiotics are being evaluated as an alternative or new class of biotherapeutics. They are produced by different groups of microorganisms—probiotics (pro-for and bio-life), such as lactic acid, bifidobacteria, actinomycetes, cyanobacteria and yeast.

New understanding of the beneficial contributions microbes and microbial communities provide in reducing disease transmission is also needed. In this regard, various mode of action of beneficial microorganisms and their role for the healthy homeostasis of humans and animals have been discovered. They are a part of understanding the role of the microbiome in health and disease prevention. The key is the knowledge of the complex metabolic processes and their regulation, the synthesis of active metabolites in situ and in vivo.

In parallel, the biotechnologies for obtaining antimicrobials or other biologically active substances are also part of the One Health strategy.

With this concept, MDPI has created a Special Issue of the journal Microorganisms, titled: BENEFICIAL MICROORGANISMS AND ANTIMICROBIALS

Potential topics in this issue include but are not limited to the following:

Antimicrobials and its producers: Useful and original approaches for characterization of antimicrobials;
Exploration of the putative activity in the cascade of events controlling virulence factors of pathogens development of disease;
New natural formulations, production study and delivery of microbial compounds with high stability and potential to support effective barrier mechanisms against pathogens;
Probiotic—mode of action and benefits for human and animal health;
New candidate for probiotics—selection and improvement;
Postbiotics/parabiotics, other natural compounds—new horizon and promising bridge between pharmabiotics and bioterapeutics.

We kindly invite you to send your latest research results or review articles to this Special Issue, which will clarify the highly discussed beneficial bacteria and their antimicrobials; in vitro characterization the mechanisms using various experimental model system to simulate in vivo their biological activity, with parallel with not well recognized probiotic phenomena. Underlying their safety and efficacy, high productivity based on innovative and reliable technologies allow advance of new therapeutics limits the invasion of pathogens and paves the way for new approaches in limiting the expansion of antibiotic resistance.

Prof. Dr. Svetla Trifonova Danova
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Microorganisms is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

antimicrobials
beneficial bacteria
probiotics
parabiotics
biological activity
biotherapeuticals

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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17 pages, 2442 KiB

Open AccessArticle

From Traditional Dairy Product “Katak” to Beneficial Lactiplantibacillus plantarum Strains

by Lili Dobreva, Dayana Borisova, Tsvetelina Paunova-Krasteva, Petya D. Dimitrova, Venelin Hubenov, Nikoleta Atanasova, Ivan Ivanov and Svetla Danova

Microorganisms 2023, 11(12), 2847; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11122847 - 23 Nov 2023

Viewed by 938

Abstract

Traditional milk products, widely consumed in many countries for centuries, have been drawing renewed attention in recent years as sources of bacteria with possible bioprotective properties. One such product for which only limited information exists is the traditional Bulgarian “katak”. This fermented yogurt-like product, renowned for its taste and long-lasting properties, possesses specific sensory characteristics. In this study, 18 lactic acid bacteria (LABs) were isolated from artisanal samples made in the Northwest part of Bulgaria. A polyphasic taxonomic approach combining classical phenotypic and molecular taxonomic methods, such as multiplex PCR, 16S rDNA sequencing, and MALDI-TOF MS, was applied, leading to the identification of 13 strains. The dominance of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum was confirmed. In vitro tests with the identified strains in model systems showed a promising broad strain-specific spectrum of activity against food-borne and human pathogens (Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli). Non-purified Lactobacillus postbiotics, produced during fermentation in skimmed and soya milks and in MRS broth, were estimated as limiting agents of virulence factors. The LAB’s production of lactate, acetate, and butyrate is a promising probiotic feature. A further characterization of the active strains and analysis of the purified post-metabolites are needed and are still in progress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Beneficial Microorganisms and Antimicrobials)

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16 pages, 4626 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Insight into the Postbiotic Potential of the Autochthonous Bacteriocin-Producing Enterococcus faecium BGZLM1-5 in the Reduction in the Abundance of Listeria monocytogenes ATCC19111 in a Milk Model

by Nikola Popović, Dušan Stevanović, Dušan Radojević, Katarina Veljović, Jelena Đokić, Nataša Golić and Amarela Terzić-Vidojević

Microorganisms 2023, 11(12), 2844; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11122844 - 23 Nov 2023

Viewed by 999

Abstract

This study aimed to explore the probiogenomic characteristics of artisanal bacteriocin-producing Enterococcus faecium BGZLM1-5 and its potential application in reducing Listeria monocytogenes in a milk model. The BGZLM1-5 strain was isolated from raw cow’s milk from households in the Zlatar Mountain region. The whole genome sequencing approach and bioinformatics analyses reveal that the strain BGZLM1-5 is non-pathogenic to humans. Bacteriocin-containing supernatant was thermally stable and antimicrobial activity retained 75% of the initial activity compared with that of the control after treatment at 90 °C for 30 min. Antimicrobial activity maintained relative stability at pH 3–11 and retained 62.5% of the initial activity compared with that of the control after treatment at pH 1, 2, and 12. The highest activity of the partially purified bacteriocin was obtained after precipitation at 40% saturation with ammonium sulfate and further purification by mixing with chloroform. Applying 3% and 5% (v/v) of the bacteriocin-containing supernatant and 0.5% (v/v) of the partially purified bacteriocin decreased the viable number of L. monocytogenes ATCC19111 after three days of milk storage by 23.5%, 63.5%, and 58.9%, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Beneficial Microorganisms and Antimicrobials)

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16 pages, 517 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bacillus subtilis RBT-7/32 and Bacillus licheniformis RBT-11/17 as New Promising Strains for Use in Probiotic Feed Additives

by Vera Yaderets, Nataliya Karpova, Elena Glagoleva, Alexandra Shibaeva and Vakhtang Dzhavakhiya

Microorganisms 2023, 11(11), 2729; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11112729 - 08 Nov 2023

Viewed by 918

Abstract

The normal functioning of a gastrointestinal microflora in poultry and livestock is of significant importance, since its imbalance negatively influences an organism’s functions. In this study, the UV mutagenesis and selection were used to obtain two Bacillus strains possessing antagonistic activity towards Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, and their potential as a probiotic feed additive was evaluated. Compared to the parental strains, the ability of B. subtilis RBT-7/32 and B. licheniformis RBT-11/17 strains to suppress E. coli increased by 77 and 63%, respectively; the corresponding ability of these strains to suppress S. aureus increased by 80 and 79%, respectively. RBT-11/17 could not utilize microcrystalline cellulose and carboxymethyl cellulose, whereas cellulolytic activity of RBT-7/32 was doubled compared to the initial strain. The amylolytic activity of new strains was increased by 40%. Cultivation of strains on media containing soybean, pea, and corn meal did not provide any difference in the biomass production compared to the control. The heating of a water suspension of a dried biomass of the strains for 10–20 min at 80 and 100 °C or incubation in water solutions of citric, ascorbic, acetic, and formic acids (pH 3.0) for 3 and 24 h at 40 °C did not provide any negative influence on the spore survivability. Both strains were evaluated for their resistance to a number of veterinary antibiotics. Thus, RBT-7/32 and RBT-11/17 strains have good prospects for use in feed additives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Beneficial Microorganisms and Antimicrobials)

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13 pages, 4872 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rhizospheric Bacillus spp. Exhibit Miticidal Efficacy against Oligonychus coffeae (Acari: Tetranychidae) of Tea

by Popy Bora, Sukanya Gogoi, Mukund Vinayak Deshpande, Pankaj Garg, Rana P. Bhuyan, Nilofar Altaf, Nikita Saha, Sapna Mayuri Borah, Mousumi Phukon, Nabajit Tanti, Bishal Saikia, Shenaz Sultana Ahmed, Sanjib Ranjan Borah, Ashish Dutta and Bidyut Kumar Sarmah

Microorganisms 2023, 11(11), 2691; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11112691 - 02 Nov 2023

Viewed by 754

Abstract

Oligonychus coffeae (Acari: Tetranychidae), popularly known as red spider mite (RSM) is one of the major pests of commercial tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze) plantation world over. Many attempts have been made in the past to control this devastating pest using a variety of microbial bioagents, however, area-wise field success is very limited. We carried out an in vitro study to explore the potential of rhizospheric Bacillus spp. (B. amyloliquefaciens BAC1, B. subtilis LB22, and B. velezensis AB22) against O. coffeae through adulticidal and ovicidal activity. The 100% adult and egg mortality was observed with bacterial suspension (1 × 10⁹ CFU/mL) by B. velezensis AB22, showing the lowest LC₅₀ values for both adults and eggs of O. coffeae, i.e., 0.28 × 10⁵ and 0.29 × 10⁵, respectively. The study also throws some insights into the underlying mechanism through electron microscopy study and identification of some putative pesticidal metabolites from all the species. The three Bacillus species were observed to have four commonly secreted putative bioactive secondary metabolites, brevianamide A, heptadecanoic acid, thiolutin, and versimide responsible for their bio-efficacy against O. coffeae. The outcome of our study provides a strong possibility of introducing Bacillus spp. as a biological miticide and developing synthetic metabolites mimicking the mechanistic pathway involved in microbial bioefficacy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Beneficial Microorganisms and Antimicrobials)

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24 pages, 3616 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Illuminating the Genomic Landscape of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum PU3—A Novel Probiotic Strain Isolated from Human Breast Milk, Explored through Nanopore Sequencing

by Daniela Mollova, Mariyana Gozmanova, Elena Apostolova, Galina Yahubyan, Ilia Iliev and Vesselin Baev

Microorganisms 2023, 11(10), 2440; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11102440 - 28 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 954

Abstract

Lactiplantibacillus plantarum stands out as a remarkably diverse species of lactic acid bacteria, occupying a myriad of ecological niches. Particularly noteworthy is its presence in human breast milk, which can serve as a reservoir of probiotic bacteria, contributing significantly to the establishment and constitution of infant gut microbiota. In light of this, our study attempted to conduct an initial investigation encompassing both genomic and phenotypic aspects of the L. plantarum PU3 strain, that holds potential as a probiotic agent. By employing the cutting-edge third-generation Nanopore sequencing technology, L. plantarum PU3 revealed a circular chromosome of 3,180,940 bp and nine plasmids of various lengths. The L. plantarum PU3 genome has a total of 2962 protein-coding and non-coding genes. Our in-depth investigations revealed more than 150 probiotic gene markers that unfold the genetic determinants for acid tolerance, bile resistance, adhesion, and oxidative and osmotic stress. The in vivo analysis showed the strain’s proficiency in utilizing various carbohydrates as growth substrates, complementing the in silico analysis of the genes involved in metabolic pathways. Notably, the strain demonstrated a pronounced affinity for D-sorbitol, D-mannitol, and D-Gluconic acid, among other carbohydrate sources. The in vitro experimental verification of acid, osmotic and bile tolerance validated the robustness of the strain in challenging environments. Encouragingly, no virulence factors were detected in the genome of PU3, suggesting its safety profile. In search of beneficial properties, we found potential bacteriocin biosynthesis clusters, suggesting its capability for antimicrobial activity. The characteristics exhibited by L. plantarum PU3 pave the way for promising strain potential, warranting further investigations to unlock its full capacity and contributions to probiotic and therapeutic avenues. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Beneficial Microorganisms and Antimicrobials)

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18 pages, 2169 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Probiotic Bacillus subtilis MB40 Improves Immunity in a Porcine Model of Listeriosis

by Sean M. Garvey, Nima K. Emami, Justin L. Guice, Nammalwar Sriranganathan, Christopher Penet, Robert P. Rhoads, Jessica L. Spears, Rami A. Dalloul and Samer W. El-Kadi

Microorganisms 2023, 11(8), 2110; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11082110 - 18 Aug 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1867

Abstract

Probiotics for humans and direct-fed microbials for livestock are increasingly popular dietary ingredients for supporting immunity. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of dietary supplementation of Bacillus subtilis MB40 (MB40) on immunity in piglets challenged with the foodborne pathogen Listeria monocytogenes (LM). Three-week-old piglets (n = 32) were randomly assigned to four groups: (1) basal diet, (2) basal diet with LM challenge, (3) MB40-supplemented diet, and (4) MB40-supplemented diet with LM challenge. Experimental diets were provided throughout a 14-day (d) period. On d8, piglets in groups 2 and 4 were intraperitoneally inoculated with LM at 10⁸ CFU/mL per piglet. Blood samples were collected at d1, d8, and d15 for biochemical and immune response profiling. Animals were euthanized and necropsied at d15 for liver and spleen bacterial counts and intestinal morphological analysis. At d15, LM challenge was associated with increased spleen weight (p = 0.017), greater circulating populations of neutrophils (p = 0.001) and monocytes (p = 0.008), and reduced ileal villus height to crypt depth ratio (p = 0.009), compared to non-challenged controls. MB40 supplementation reduced LM bacterial counts in the liver and spleen by 67% (p < 0.001) and 49% (p < 0.001), respectively, following the LM challenge, compared to the basal diet. MB40 supplementation was also associated with decreased circulating concentrations of monocytes (p = 0.007). Altogether, these data suggest that MB40 supplementation is a safe and well-tolerated approach to enhance immunity during systemic Listeria infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Beneficial Microorganisms and Antimicrobials)

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18 pages, 3372 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Human Milk Oligosaccharides and Prebiotic Sugars from LAB Isolated from Breast Milk

by Daniela Mollova, Tonka Vasileva, Veselin Bivolarski and Ilia Iliev

Microorganisms 2023, 11(8), 1904; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11081904 - 27 Jul 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1146

Abstract

Breastfeeding is essential in the first months of a newborn’s life. Breast milk is a source of crucial macronutrients, prebiotic oligosaccharides, and potential probiotic strains of bacteria. Oligosaccharides from breast milk (HMOs) are a significant part of the composition of breast milk and represent a complex of digestible sugars. This study aims to elucidate the enzymatic hydrolysis of these oligosaccharides and other prebiotics by the bacteria present in breast milk. We used modified methods to isolate oligosaccharides (HMOs) from human milk. Using unique techniques, we isolated and identified different bacteria from breast milk, mainly Lactobacillus fermentum. Using enzymatic analyses, we established the participation of α-fucosidase, α-glucosidase, β-galactosidase, and β-glucosidase from breast milk bacteria in the hydrolysis of prebiotic sugars. We also optimized the scheme for isolating oligosaccharides from breast milk by putting the lyophilized product into different food media. We found that the oligosaccharides from breast milk (HMOs) are a potent inducer for the secretion of the studied bacterial enzymes. Also, we found that all the lactobacilli strains we studied in detail could digest mucin-linked glycans. The degradation of these sugars is perhaps a built-in defense mechanism in cases where other sugars are lacking in the environment. We also determined fucosidase activity in some of the isolated strains. We recorded the highest values (2.5 U/mg in L. fermentum ss8) when the medium’s oligosaccharides isolated from breast milk were present. Lactobacilli and Bifidobacteria supplied with breast milk are the first colonizers in most cases in the gastrointestinal tract of the newborn. The presence and study of different genes for synthesizing other enzyme systems and transporters of various sugars in this type of bacteria are essential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Beneficial Microorganisms and Antimicrobials)

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16 pages, 1838 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antagonistic Interactions of Lactic Acid Bacteria from Human Oral Microbiome against Streptococcus mutans and Candida albicans

by Nikola Atanasov, Yana Evstatieva and Dilyana Nikolova

Microorganisms 2023, 11(6), 1604; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11061604 - 17 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1677

Abstract

Oral probiotic lactic acid bacteria can exhibit antagonistic activities against pathogens associated with diseases in the oral cavity. Therefore, twelve previously isolated oral strains were assessed for antagonistic evaluation against selected oral test microorganisms Streptococcus mutans and Candida albicans. Two separate co-culturing analyses were performed, where all tested strains showed the presence of antagonistic activity and four strains, Limosilactobacillus fermentum N 2, TC 3-11, and NA 2-2, and Weissella confusa NN 1, significantly inhibited Streptococcus mutans by 3–5 logs. The strains showed antagonistic activity against Candida albicans, and all exhibited pathogen inhibition by up to 2 logs. Co-aggregation capability was assessed, showing co-aggregative properties with the selected pathogens. Biofilm formation and antibiofilm activity of the tested strains against the oral pathogens were assayed, where the strains showed specificity in self-biofilm formation and well-expressed antibiofilm properties by most of them above 79% and 50% against Streptococcus mutans and Candida albicans, respectively. The tested LAB strains were assayed by a KMnO₄ antioxidant bioassay, where most of the native cell-free supernatants exhibited total antioxidant capacity. These results show that five tested strains are promising candidates to be included in new functional probiotic products for oral healthcare. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Beneficial Microorganisms and Antimicrobials)

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27 pages, 808 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comprehensive Approaches for the Search and Characterization of Staphylococcins

by Rosa Fernández-Fernández, Carmen Lozano, Rine Christopher Reuben, Laura Ruiz-Ripa, Myriam Zarazaga and Carmen Torres

Microorganisms 2023, 11(5), 1329; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11051329 - 18 May 2023

Viewed by 1339

Abstract

Novel and sustainable approaches are required to curb the increasing threat of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Within the last decades, antimicrobial peptides, especially bacteriocins, have received increased attention and are being explored as suitable alternatives to antibiotics. Bacteriocins are ribosomally synthesized antimicrobial peptides produced by bacteria as a self-preservation method against competitors. Bacteriocins produced by Staphylococcus, also referred to as staphylococcins, have steadily shown great antimicrobial potential and are currently being considered promising candidates to mitigate the AMR menace. Moreover, several bacteriocin-producing Staphylococcus isolates of different species, especially coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS), have been described and are being targeted as a good alternative. This revision aims to help researchers in the search and characterization of staphylococcins, so we provide an up-to-date list of bacteriocin produced by Staphylococcus. Moreover, a universal nucleotide and amino acid-based phylogeny system of the well-characterized staphylococcins is proposed that could be of interest in the classification and search for these promising antimicrobials. Finally, we discuss the state of art of the staphylococcin applications and an overview of the emerging concerns. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Beneficial Microorganisms and Antimicrobials)

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Review

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19 pages, 760 KiB

Open AccessReview

Prebiotics, Probiotics, and Synbiotics—A Research Hotspot for Pediatric Obesity

by Reka Borka Balas, Lorena Elena Meliț, Ancuța Lupu, Vasile Valeriu Lupu and Cristina Oana Mărginean

Microorganisms 2023, 11(11), 2651; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11112651 - 28 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1544

Abstract

Childhood obesity is a major public health problem worldwide with an increasing prevalence, associated not only with metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), but also with psychosocial problems. Gut microbiota is a new factor in childhood obesity, which can modulate the blood lipopolysaccharide levels, the satiety, and fat distribution, and can ensure additional calories to the host. The aim of this review was to assess the differences and the impact of the gut microbial composition on several obesity-related complications such as metabolic syndrome, NAFLD, or insulin resistance. Early dysbiosis was proven to be associated with an increased predisposition to obesity. Depending on the predominant species, the gut microbiota might have either a positive or negative impact on the development of obesity. Prebiotics, probiotics, and synbiotics were suggested to have a positive effect on improving the gut microbiota and reducing cardio-metabolic risk factors. The results of clinical trials regarding probiotic, prebiotic, and synbiotic administration in children with metabolic syndrome, NAFLD, and insulin resistance are controversial. Some of them (Lactobacillus rhamnosus bv-77, Lactobacillus salivarius, and Bifidobacterium animalis) were proven to reduce the body mass index in obese children, and also improve the blood lipid content; others (Bifidobacterium bifidum, Bifidobacterium longum, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus, Enterococcus faecium, and fructo-oligosaccharides) failed in proving any effect on lipid parameters and glucose metabolism. Further studies are necessary for understanding the mechanism of the gut microbiota in childhood obesity and for developing low-cost effective strategies for its management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Beneficial Microorganisms and Antimicrobials)

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16 pages, 1195 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Effects of Lactobacillus johnsonii on Diseases and Its Potential Applications

by Ziyi Zhang, Lanlan Zhao, Jiacheng Wu, Yingmiao Pan, Guoping Zhao, Ziyun Li and Lei Zhang

Microorganisms 2023, 11(10), 2580; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11102580 - 17 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1813

Abstract

Lactobacillus johnsonii has been used as a probiotic for decades to treat a wide range of illnesses, and has been found to have specific advantages in the treatment of a number of ailments. We reviewed the potential therapeutic effects and mechanisms of L. johnsonii in various diseases based on PubMed and the Web of Science databases. We obtained the information of 149 L. johnsonii from NCBI (as of 14 February 2023), and reviewed their comprehensive metadata, including information about the plasmids they contain. This review provides a basic characterization of different L. johnsonii and some of their potential therapeutic properties for various ailments. Although the mechanisms are not fully understood yet, it is hoped that they may provide some evidence for future studies. Furthermore, the antibiotic resistance of the various strains of L. johnsonii is not clear, and more complete and in-depth studies are needed. In summary, L. johnsonii presents significant research potential for the treatment or prevention of disease; however, more proof is required to justify its therapeutic application. An additional study on the antibiotic resistance genes it contains is also needed to reduce the antimicrobial resistance dissemination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Beneficial Microorganisms and Antimicrobials)

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