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Metals
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Additive Manufacturing of Titanium Alloys 2022
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Additive Manufacturing of Titanium Alloys 2022

A special issue of Metals (ISSN 2075-4701). This special issue belongs to the section "Additive Manufacturing".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 May 2023) | Viewed by 7601

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Vera Popovich

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 2, CD 2628 Delft, The Netherlands
Interests: design of materials through additive manufacturing; additively manufactured smart materials; fracture and fatigue; microstructure-damage evolution
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Thorsten Becker

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Centre for Materials Enigneering, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7701, South Africa
Interests: additive manufacturing; laser powder bed fusion; Ti-based alloys; fatigue; fatigue crack growth; fracture; digital image/volume correlation; microstructure

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Titanium alloys have been widely adopted in many industrial applications because of their high strength, low density, and excellent corrosion resistance. Examples of their application include aircraft that require a high specific strength and excellent fatigue resistance, aero-engines that require a good creep resistance, and biomedical and chemical processing equipment where good corrosion resistance is critical.

The traditional methods used to manufacture titanium components (following casting, thermo-mechanical, and final finishing processes) are difficult and expensive because of titanium's low thermal conductivity, high tooling costs, and high affinity for oxygen pickup during thermal treatments. Additive manufacturing (AM) offers the advantage of allowing for near-net-shaped part fabrication using only one fabrication step, design flexibility, near-zero material wastage, and flexibility in manufacturing different types of components using other alloys, to name a few. Thus, the AM of titanium alloys has gained significant interest over the past decade.

Although the production of titanium parts using traditional techniques has been optimised over several centuries, the AM process is relatively new, and a detailed understanding of the relationship between the alloy's composition, processing history, microstructural evolution, and mechanical performance has not yet been developed. Such knowledge is critical. Variations in the composition and processing routes used will alter the material’s properties, which cannot necessarily be predicted from our well-established understanding of traditional manufacturing technologies.

We welcome your contributions to the latest developments in AM titanium alloys. For this open access Special Issue, we invite the submission of original research articles and review papers focused on (i) the development of titanium alloys for AM; (ii) the relationship between AM process parameters, the evolution of the resulting microstructure, and its functional properties; (iii) the effect of various heat treatments; (iv) mechanical performance and environmental effects; and (v) modelling and design for performance optimisation.

Dr. Vera Popovich
Dr. Thorsten Becker
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Metals is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • titanium alloys
  • additive manufacturing (AM)
  • laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF)
  • electron beam powder bed fusion (EB-LBF)
  • direct energy deposition (DED)
  • post-process treatment
  • microstructural characterization
  • modelling of mechanical and functional properties

Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

17 pages, 11245 KiB  
Article
Fabrication of Electron Beam Melted Titanium Aluminide: The Effects of Machining Parameters and Heat Treatment on Surface Roughness and Hardness
by Murat Isik, Mehmet Yildiz, Ragip Orkun Secer, Ceren Sen, Guney Mert Bilgin, Akin Orhangul, Guray Akbulut, Hamidreza Javidrad and Bahattin Koc
Metals 2023, 13(12), 1952; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13121952 - 28 Nov 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 994
Abstract
Titanium aluminide alloys have gained attention for their lightweight and high-performance properties, particularly in aerospace and automotive applications. Traditional manufacturing methods such as casting and forging have limitations on part size and complexity, but additive manufacturing (AM), specifically electron beam melting (EBM), has [...] Read more.
Titanium aluminide alloys have gained attention for their lightweight and high-performance properties, particularly in aerospace and automotive applications. Traditional manufacturing methods such as casting and forging have limitations on part size and complexity, but additive manufacturing (AM), specifically electron beam melting (EBM), has overcome these challenges. However, the surface quality of AM parts is not ideal for sensitive applications, so post-processing techniques such as machining are used to improve it. The combination of AM and machining is seen as a promising solution. However, research on optimizing machining parameters and their impact on surface quality characteristics is lacking. Limited studies exist on additively manufactured TiAl alloys, necessitating further investigation into surface roughness during EBM TiAl machining and its relationship to cutting speed. As-built and heat-treated TiAl samples undergo machining at different feed rates and surface speeds. Profilometer analysis reveals worsened surface roughness in both heat-treated and non-heat-treated specimens at certain machining conditions, with higher speeds exacerbating edge cracks and material pull-outs. The hardness of the machined surfaces remains consistent within the range of 32–33.1 HRC at condition 3C (45 SFM and 0.1 mm/tooth). As-built hardness remains unchanged with increasing spindle and cutting head speeds. Conversely, heat-treated condition 3C surfaces demonstrate greater hardness than condition 1A (15 SFM, and 0.04 mm/tooth), indicating increased hardness with varying feed and surface speeds. This suggests crack formation in the as-built condition is considered to be influenced by factors beyond hardness, such as deformation-related grain refinement/strain hardening, while hardness and the existence of the α2 phase play a more significant role in heat-treated surfaces. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Titanium Alloys 2022)
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21 pages, 10174 KiB  
Article
Characterisation of the Tensile and Metallurgical Properties of Laser Powder Bed Fusion-Produced Ti-6Al-4V ELI in the Duplex Annealed and Dry Electropolished Conditions
by Duncan William Gibbons, William Motsoko Makhetha, Thorsten Hermann Becker and Andre Francois van der Merwe
Metals 2023, 13(8), 1390; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13081390 - 02 Aug 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 954
Abstract
Metal additive manufacturing is becoming a popular manufacturing process in industries requiring geometrically complex components, part consolidation, and reductions in material waste. Metals manufactured via additive manufacturing processes such as laser powder bed fusion typically exhibit process-induced defects, material inhomogeneities, and anisotropy in [...] Read more.
Metal additive manufacturing is becoming a popular manufacturing process in industries requiring geometrically complex components, part consolidation, and reductions in material waste. Metals manufactured via additive manufacturing processes such as laser powder bed fusion typically exhibit process-induced defects, material inhomogeneities, and anisotropy in terms of mechanical properties. Post-processing techniques such as heat treatments and surface finishing have been touted as approaches for improving these materials. Although various post-processing techniques have been proposed, the optimal post-processing route remains an active area of research. This research investigates Ti-6Al-4V ELI produced using laser powder bed fusion and post-processed via different routes. The materials in the stress-relieved and duplex annealed material conditions as well as dry electropolished and machined surface conditions were characterised. The duplex annealed Ti-6Al-4V ELI material showed improvements in ductility but at reduced strength when compared with the material in the stress-relieved condition. The microstructure of the duplex annealed material shows little evidence of process-induced defects and features and consists primarily of elongated and acicular α in a lamellar structure with intergranular β and exhibits uniform microhardness throughout the material. A reduced surface roughness due to surface finishing resulted in an improved reduction in area. This research highlights the effects of post-processing treatments and their ability to improve the properties of laser powder bed fusion-produced Ti-6Al-4V ELI. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Titanium Alloys 2022)
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13 pages, 7431 KiB  
Article
Influence of Tungsten Addition on Microstructure and Tensile Properties of Ti6Al4V Fabricated by Laser-Directed Energy Deposition
by Junguo Li, Jinding Xiong, Yi Sun and Qinqin Wei
Metals 2023, 13(6), 1064; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13061064 - 01 Jun 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1208
Abstract
The addition of tungsten can improve the high-temperature oxidation resistance of titanium alloys. However, as its applications continue to expand, new demands are being placed on its room temperature strength. Here, we provide a dense titanium alloy with high strength by introducing proper [...] Read more.
The addition of tungsten can improve the high-temperature oxidation resistance of titanium alloys. However, as its applications continue to expand, new demands are being placed on its room temperature strength. Here, we provide a dense titanium alloy with high strength by introducing proper W powders into the Ti6Al4V powders under direct energy deposition. The effect of tungsten addition on the microstructure and tensile properties of the Ti6Al4V alloy was investigated. Compared to pure Ti6Al4V, the titanium alloy with tungsten addition exhibited refined α′ martensite and β grains, which is attributable to the effect of tungsten on the structural subcooling of titanium and on the formation temperature of the α′ martensite. Owing to the synergistic strengthening effects of grain refinement and solid solution strengthening, the W-containing alloy shows a high tensile strength of 1333 MPa and yield strength of 1219 MPa, which are significantly higher than Ti6Al4V alloy’s tensile strength of 940 MPa and yield strength of 860 MPa. This approach provides a pathway for design and preparation of high-strength titanium alloys by additive manufacturing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Titanium Alloys 2022)
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13 pages, 25394 KiB  
Article
Effects of L-PBF Scanning Strategy and Sloping Angle on the Process Properties of TC11 Titanium Alloy
by Xuben Lu, Chang Shu, Zhiyu Zheng, Xuedao Shu, Siyuan Chen, Khamis Essa, Zixuan Li and Haijie Xu
Metals 2023, 13(5), 983; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13050983 - 19 May 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1228
Abstract
TC11 titanium alloy is widely used in aerospace. To investigate the production of TC11 titanium alloy parts of high quality and performance, this paper adopts the Laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) technique to prepare TC11 alloy specimens. We analyze in detail the effects [...] Read more.
TC11 titanium alloy is widely used in aerospace. To investigate the production of TC11 titanium alloy parts of high quality and performance, this paper adopts the Laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) technique to prepare TC11 alloy specimens. We analyze in detail the effects of scanning strategy and forming angle on the forming quality and performance of TC11 alloy through a combination of theory and experiment. The results show that the upper surface quality of the strip-scanned molded parts is the highest, and the upper surface quality is better than that of the side surface under different scanning strategies. The fusion channel lap and surface adhesion powder were the main factors affecting the surface roughness. With increases in the forming angle, the surface roughness of the overhanging surface gradually decreases and the hardness gradually increases. The surface quality and hardness of the specimen are optimal when the forming angle is 90°. The research results provide the theoretical basis and technical support for L-PBF forming of TC11 titanium alloy parts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Titanium Alloys 2022)
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13 pages, 5321 KiB  
Article
Electron Beam-Melting and Laser Powder Bed Fusion of Ti6Al4V: Transferability of Process Parameters
by Sandra Megahed, Vadim Aniko and Johannes Henrich Schleifenbaum
Metals 2022, 12(8), 1332; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12081332 - 09 Aug 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2309
Abstract
Metal powder bed-based Additive Manufacturing (AM) technologies, such as Electron Beam-Melting (EBM) and Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF), are established in several industries due to the large design freedom and mechanical properties. While EBM and LPBF have similar operating steps, process-specific characteristics influence [...] Read more.
Metal powder bed-based Additive Manufacturing (AM) technologies, such as Electron Beam-Melting (EBM) and Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF), are established in several industries due to the large design freedom and mechanical properties. While EBM and LPBF have similar operating steps, process-specific characteristics influence the component design. The differences in the energy coupling lead to differing solidification conditions, microstructures, and, thus, mechanical properties. The surface finish and geometrical accuracy are also affected. As opposed to LPBF, EBM powder layers are preheated prior to selective melting. In this study, similar volume energy densities in LPBF and EBM were used to manufacture Ti6Al4V test geometries to assess the process transferability. Since the energy coupling of LPBF and EBM differ, heat source absorption was considered when calculating the volume energy density. Even when a similar volume energy density was used, significant differences in the component quality were found in this study due to specific respective process constraints. The extent of these constrains was investigated on voluminous samples and support-free overhanging structures. Overhang angles up to 90° were manufactured with LPBF and EBM, and characterized with regard to the relative density, surface roughness, and geometric compliance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Titanium Alloys 2022)
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