10th Anniversary of Metals: Metallurgy and Metal Technology

A special issue of Metals (ISSN 2075-4701).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2020) | Viewed by 57711

Special Issue Editors

Department of Materials Science and Engineering, College of Engineering & Applied Science, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 3200 N. Cramer Street, Milwaukee, WI 53211, USA
Interests: diffusional processes; hydrogen effects in solids; high temperature phase stability; solidification processing
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Institute of Materials Science, Joining and Forming, Graz University of Technology, Kopernikusgasse 24, A-8010 Graz, Austria
Interests: materials development in steels and aluminum alloys; welding; metal forming; modelling and simulation of metal processing; additive manufacturing
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Metals (ISSN 2075-4701) is a peer-reviewed, open-access journal founded in 2011. With a first impact factor of 0.883 in 2015, Metals has experienced tremendous growth in terms of the number and quality of scientific publications. Now, Metals is ranking among the top international journals in the field of metallurgy and metallurgy engineering with an impact factor of 2.259. To celebrate the 10th anniversary of Metals, we are currently organizing a Special Issue to commemorate this important milestone.

To highlight this anniversary, we will be editing a Special Issue that will gather various topics related to metallurgy and metal technology.

All scholars in the community are invited to submit original articles and critical reviews on any of the topics. Please also encourage any of your colleagues who may be interested to submit manuscripts.

We expect that this Issue will attract considerable attention, as we prepare to celebrate the excellent scientific contributions of Metals over the past 10 years.

Prof. Hugo Lopez
Prof. Dr. Bernd Friedrich
Prof. Christof Sommitsch
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Metals is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Published Papers (20 papers)

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Research

11 pages, 1714 KiB  
Article
The Influence of Initial Purity Level on the Refining Efficiency of Aluminum via Zone Refining
by Xiaoxin Zhang, Semiramis Friedrich and Bernd Friedrich
Metals 2021, 11(2), 201; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11020201 - 22 Jan 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1732
Abstract
Zone refining is a well-known technique, usually using pure initial materials to produce high purity metals. However, the effectiveness of zone refining in the purification of different purity levels of metals as well as its feasibility for use as a recycling technique for [...] Read more.
Zone refining is a well-known technique, usually using pure initial materials to produce high purity metals. However, the effectiveness of zone refining in the purification of different purity levels of metals as well as its feasibility for use as a recycling technique for low quality metals are rarely investigated. In this work, conducted at IME/RWTH Aachen University, three kinds of Al with different purities, i.e., three-layer electrolysis (4N), commercial pure (2N8) and recycled Al (1N7), were put on focus to address the above-mentioned issue. The experiments were conducted with an optimized zone length combination at the moving rate of 1.2 mm/min for five zone passes. The results showed that the 4N pure initial Al was improved to 5N5 after five passes, much higher than the results for commercial pure- or recycled Al, where less than 50% reduction of total impurities was achieved. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Metals: Metallurgy and Metal Technology)
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16 pages, 2789 KiB  
Article
Removal of Copper, Nickel, and Iron from Lead–Tin Composite by Segregation of Intermetallic Silicon Phases
by Stefan Jessen, Danilo C. Curtolo and Bernd Friedrich
Metals 2021, 11(1), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11010081 - 02 Jan 2021
Viewed by 3736
Abstract
In the reduction stage of the secondary copper production process, copper, nickel, lead, and tin are collected in a “black copper”, while zinc is volatilized and precipitated as ZnO in the flue dust. The slag coming from this reduction stage is low in [...] Read more.
In the reduction stage of the secondary copper production process, copper, nickel, lead, and tin are collected in a “black copper”, while zinc is volatilized and precipitated as ZnO in the flue dust. The slag coming from this reduction stage is low in valuable metals and is disposed. In the conversion stage, lead and tin are oxidized and incorporated in the slag phase; in accordance with the oxygen potential, this “converter slag” also contains higher contents of copper and nickel. This slag is then reduced in two stages. From the first stage, a copper–nickel metal is returned to the converter stage, and in the second stage, a crude PbSn composite with copper contents of around 10% and nickel contents of around 2.5%, as well as a further usable slag, is obtained from the “secondary” slag. Iron is used as a reducing agent, so that the metal obtained can contain iron of up to over 10%, depending on the reduction duration. The motivation of this investigation is to provide a method for the subsequent refining of the raw PbSn composite, with the aim of obtain a saleable PbSn composite as well as returning the copper and nickel contents quantitatively to the main copper route or to sell them as an alloy. Therefore, the present work aims to investigate the refining of the raw PbSn composite by the separation of the copper, nickel, and iron via the segregation of intermetallic phases. For that, a series of experiments were performed on the formation and subsequent segregation of intermetallic phases, by introduction of an additional element to the system. The results indicated sharper separation of PbSn composite and copper, nickel, and iron due to the higher thermodynamic stability of these phases (selectivity). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Metals: Metallurgy and Metal Technology)
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19 pages, 6207 KiB  
Article
Recovery of Gallium from Smartphones—Part II: Oxidative Alkaline Pressure Leaching of Gallium from Pyrolysis Residue
by Benedikt Flerus and Bernd Friedrich
Metals 2020, 10(12), 1565; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10121565 - 24 Nov 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1842
Abstract
In this article, we examine the selective hydrometallurgical extraction of gallium from pyrolyzed smartphones. Gallium-enriched pyrolysis residue originating from pyrolyzed smartphones was leached using NaOH and gaseous oxygen at elevated temperatures and pressures. The high content of organic carbon in the material strongly [...] Read more.
In this article, we examine the selective hydrometallurgical extraction of gallium from pyrolyzed smartphones. Gallium-enriched pyrolysis residue originating from pyrolyzed smartphones was leached using NaOH and gaseous oxygen at elevated temperatures and pressures. The high content of organic carbon in the material strongly influenced the leaching performance. Oxygen, which is indispensable for the dissolution of gallium, also oxidized the organic carbon in the feed so that CO2 was released, which had a neutralizing effect on the alkaline solution. As a result, the CO2 formation complicated the accurate process control as the leaching temperature increased. The highest gallium yield of 82% was obtained at 180 °C, 5 g/L NaOH and 5 bar oxygen pressure. Decreased temperatures, NaOH concentrations and oxygen pressures resulted in lower leaching yields but with a higher selectivity for Ga. Temperatures higher than 180 °C resulted in extensive carbon oxidation, NaOH consumption and the coextraction of Cu and Ag. We propose that those conditions also facilitated the formation of water-soluble organic compounds, which would also influence the metal dissolution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Metals: Metallurgy and Metal Technology)
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10 pages, 1895 KiB  
Article
Preliminary Discussion on the Highly Radiogenic Lead in Unalloyed Copper Artifacts of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty: Starting from the Huili Copper Spearheads
by Xiaoting Wang, Wugan Luo, Yingdong Yang, Dian Chen, Jing Du and Xiang Tang
Metals 2020, 10(9), 1252; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10091252 - 17 Sep 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2239
Abstract
The debate about the highly radiogenic lead in Chinese archaeology has never ceased. However, previous studies have mainly focused on high leaded bronzes and lead materials, and with little specific discussion on the unalloyed copper artifacts and the sources of copper materials in [...] Read more.
The debate about the highly radiogenic lead in Chinese archaeology has never ceased. However, previous studies have mainly focused on high leaded bronzes and lead materials, and with little specific discussion on the unalloyed copper artifacts and the sources of copper materials in China. In this work, a trace of highly radiogenic lead was found in ten copper spearheads unearthed from Huili County, Sichuan Province, southwest China, which inspired our research on this issue. The pXRF results showed that their lead content is extremely low, so the lead isotope ratios can indicate the source of copper, and the data correspond to the local copper deposits. Combined with other relevant highly radiogenic lead isotope data of unalloyed copper artifacts, the results indicate that there were multiple sources of copper ores used in the Shang Dynasty, and copper mines were continuously used in Southwest China until the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Metals: Metallurgy and Metal Technology)
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12 pages, 4503 KiB  
Article
Dilution Ratio and the Resulting Composition Profile in Dissimilar Laser Powder Bed Fusion of AlSi10Mg and Al99.8
by Constantin Böhm, Martin Werz and Stefan Weihe
Metals 2020, 10(9), 1222; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10091222 - 10 Sep 2020
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2178
Abstract
A variant of a hybrid manufacturing process combines the benefits of laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) and conventional manufacturing. Hybrid manufacturing can result in dissimilar material combinations which are prone to process errors. This study is motivated by the future application of a [...] Read more.
A variant of a hybrid manufacturing process combines the benefits of laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) and conventional manufacturing. Hybrid manufacturing can result in dissimilar material combinations which are prone to process errors. This study is motivated by the future application of a hybrid manufacturing variant and focusses on dissimilar aluminium alloys were hot cracks are the dominant process errors. A theoretical model was derived for the composition profile based on the dilution ratio known from fusion welding. The theory was validated with penetration depth measurements and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy line scans on samples manufactured by LPBF (powder AlSi10Mg, building platform Al99.8 and line energies Pv−1 = 0.26–0.42 J·mm−1). A material combination with a low hot crack susceptibility was chosen to establish the theory. The results suggest that the dilution ratio is dependent on the penetration depth and the layer thickness. The used line energies result in a dilution ratio of 67–86% which results in 2–6 re-melted and mixed layers per added layer. A specific process design metric, the mixture height, is proposed to estimate the spatial effect of the dilution. The results can be used to adjust process parameters to lessen the effect of process errors in dissimilar hybrid manufacturing and increase mechanical performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Metals: Metallurgy and Metal Technology)
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15 pages, 1965 KiB  
Article
Facile Synthesis, Characterization, and Adsorption Insights of Lanthanum Oxide Nanorods
by Lakshmi Prasanna Lingamdinne, Janardhan Reddy Koduru, Yoon-Young Chang, Seon-Hong Kang and Jae-Kyu Yang
Metals 2020, 10(8), 1001; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10081001 - 24 Jul 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2535
Abstract
This study synthesized lanthanum oxide (La2O3) nanorods to develop a practical approach for the removal of arsenic from groundwater. La2O3 nanorods were synthesized by a simple hydrothermal process followed by calcination at 500 °C and were [...] Read more.
This study synthesized lanthanum oxide (La2O3) nanorods to develop a practical approach for the removal of arsenic from groundwater. La2O3 nanorods were synthesized by a simple hydrothermal process followed by calcination at 500 °C and were characterized by spectroscopic and microscopic techniques. To evaluate the adsorption mechanism of La2O3 nanorods, adsorption parameters including solution pH, temperature, equilibrium isotherms, and kinetics for arsenic were studied. The results suggested that the arsenic uptake was a rate-limiting, monolayer adsorption interaction on the La2O3 nanorods homogeneous surface. In addition, it was found that the adsorptive removal behavior of La2O3 for As(V) was sensitive to the initial pH and temperature, and the maximum uptake amount of as prepared La2O3 was found to be 260.56 mg/g of As(V) at pH 6.0 and 25 °C. Furthermore, the uptake capacity of La2O3 nanorods for As(V) increased with temperature. The resultant thermodynamic parameters (ΔG0, ΔH0, and ΔS0) suggested an endothermic adsorption of As(V) on La2O3. The adsorption capacity of La2O3 was higher than that of several reported nanocomposites, suggesting its practical applicability and novelty for As-contaminated wastewater treatment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Metals: Metallurgy and Metal Technology)
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15 pages, 18014 KiB  
Article
Numerical and Experimental Investigation of Germanium Refining via Fractional Crystallization Based Innovative Rotary Cooling Device
by Danilo C. Curtolo, Semiramis Friedrich, Michael Noack and Bernd Friedrich
Metals 2020, 10(7), 973; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10070973 - 18 Jul 2020
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3004
Abstract
This paper focuses on the principle study and application of a fractional crystallization methodology using a rotating and internally gas cooled crystallizer (so called cooled finger, developed at IME/RWTH Aachen) first applied to the refining of germanium. For this purpose, a series of [...] Read more.
This paper focuses on the principle study and application of a fractional crystallization methodology using a rotating and internally gas cooled crystallizer (so called cooled finger, developed at IME/RWTH Aachen) first applied to the refining of germanium. For this purpose, a series of experimental trials were performed using a model metal—Aluminum—to gather the temperature profile needed for the numerical simulation that provides an initial process window used for the purification of germanium in a vacuum resistance furnace. The results of the simulation showed good agreement with the experimental results and the conducted trials based on that process window enabled the single step purification of germanium from an initial purity of 98.8% up to 99.9%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Metals: Metallurgy and Metal Technology)
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34 pages, 7229 KiB  
Article
Experimental Characterization and Deterministic Prediction of In-Plane Formability of 3rd Generation Advanced High Strength Steels
by Jon Edward Gutierrez, Jacqueline Noder and Clifford Butcher
Metals 2020, 10(7), 902; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10070902 - 06 Jul 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3456
Abstract
The objective of the current study is to develop a practical, deterministic approach to the prediction of the in-plane formability of two third generation advanced high-strength steels (AHSS) of 980 and 1180 MPa ultimate tensile strength using only quasi-static mechanical property data. The [...] Read more.
The objective of the current study is to develop a practical, deterministic approach to the prediction of the in-plane formability of two third generation advanced high-strength steels (AHSS) of 980 and 1180 MPa ultimate tensile strength using only quasi-static mechanical property data. The hardening response to large strains was experimentally measured with the use of simple shear and tensile tests and validated in tensile simulations. The process-corrected limit strains in the Nakazima and Marciniak tests were compared to various analytical Forming Limit Curve (FLC) models for in-plane stretching. It was observed that the widely-used Marciniak–Kuczynski model can adequately predict the experimental FLC in biaxial stretching but significantly underestimated the limit strains in uniaxial stretching for both third generation AHSS. The observed through-thickness shear fracture mode in biaxial stretching was reasonably well-captured by the Bressan–Williams (BW) instability model for the 1180 MPa steel. A proposed extension of the BW model to uniaxial tension by adoption of the maximum in-plane shear stress criterion (BWx model) provided superior experimental correlation relative to the zero-extension model of Hill that was too conservative. Finally, a linearized version of the modified maximum force criterion (MMFC) was proposed that markedly improved the correlation with the process-corrected FLC for in-plane stretching of AHSS. The developed framework for FLC prediction was then applied to a DP980 AHSS and an AA5182 aluminum alloy from the literature. The DP980 corroborated the observed trend for the two third generation AHSS whereas the MK and the BWx models performed best for the AA5182 with its saturation-type hardening behavior and non-quadratic yield surface. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Metals: Metallurgy and Metal Technology)
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14 pages, 4380 KiB  
Article
Activation Pretreatment and Leaching Process of High-Alumina Coal Fly Ash to Extract Lithium and Aluminum
by Shenyong Li, Penghui Bo, Lianwei Kang, Haigang Guo, Wenyue Gao and Shenjun Qin
Metals 2020, 10(7), 893; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10070893 - 05 Jul 2020
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3118
Abstract
Experiments were conducted to investigate the process of aluminum and lithium extraction from high-alumina coal fly ash (HCFA) generated from coal-fired power plants located in northern China. The presence of mullite and other aluminosilicates lead to low reactivity of coal fly ash. An [...] Read more.
Experiments were conducted to investigate the process of aluminum and lithium extraction from high-alumina coal fly ash (HCFA) generated from coal-fired power plants located in northern China. The presence of mullite and other aluminosilicates lead to low reactivity of coal fly ash. An activation pretreatment that destroys an inert composition of coal is necessary. The activation roasting of coal fly ash using sodium chloride and a subsequent leaching process were performed in this research. The results showed that almost no aluminum and lithium were dissolved under direct water leaching, while about 7% and 10% of those were leached into the acid solution respectively. Adding NaCl enhanced the atmospheric pressure leaching of aluminum and lithium with a leaching rate around 50%. Phase analysis and equilibrium calculations results showed that the roasting reaction between the HCFA and NaCl occurred, which led to generation of main new phase NaAlSi3O8. The pressure extraction efficiencies of aluminum and lithium were increased to about 93% and 98%, respectively. The implications of the findings provide an alternative process for recovering aluminum and lithium from readily available high-alumina coal fly ash. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Metals: Metallurgy and Metal Technology)
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12 pages, 7209 KiB  
Article
Improvement of the Corrosion Resistance by Addition of Ni in Lean Duplex Stainless Steels
by Heon-Young Ha, Tae-Ho Lee, Sung-Dae Kim, Jae Hoon Jang and Joonoh Moon
Metals 2020, 10(7), 891; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10070891 - 04 Jul 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2107
Abstract
On newly developed Febalance-18Cr-7Mn-3Mo-3W-0.4N-(0.03, 0.57)Ni (in wt%) lean duplex stainless steels, the microstructure, element partitioning behavior, and resistance to pitting corrosion were investigated. After solution treatments, the two alloys were found to have similar microstructures in terms of phase fraction and [...] Read more.
On newly developed Febalance-18Cr-7Mn-3Mo-3W-0.4N-(0.03, 0.57)Ni (in wt%) lean duplex stainless steels, the microstructure, element partitioning behavior, and resistance to pitting corrosion were investigated. After solution treatments, the two alloys were found to have similar microstructures in terms of phase fraction and grain size, and have a precipitation-free matrix. The polarization tests revealed that the addition of Ni was beneficial to improve the resistance to pitting corrosion, which was confirmed by the rise in pitting and repassivation potentials. The uniform corrosion behavior and galvanic corrosion rate of the matrix were investigated to explain the improved pitting corrosion resistance of the Ni-added lean duplex stainless steel. As a result, it was found that the addition of Ni enhanced the resistance to uniform corrosion by reducing the galvanic corrosion rate between the ferrite and austenite phases in the lean duplex stainless steel; thus, the pit growth rate was decreased, leading to improvement of the resistance to pitting corrosion. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Metals: Metallurgy and Metal Technology)
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17 pages, 4039 KiB  
Article
Mechanism of Nickel, Magnesium, and Iron Recovery from Olivine Bearing Ore during Leaching with Hydrochloric Acid Including a Carbonation Pre-Treatment
by Carlos Matus, Srecko Stopic, Simon Etzold, Dario Kremer, Hermann Wotruba, Christian Dertmann, Rainer Telle, Bernd Friedrich and Pol Knops
Metals 2020, 10(6), 811; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10060811 - 17 Jun 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4596
Abstract
This work continues on from previous studies showing that mineral sequestration by carbonation of magnesium or calcium silicates under high pressure and high temperature can be successfully carried out by processing in an autoclave. The paper is focused on the influence of experimental [...] Read more.
This work continues on from previous studies showing that mineral sequestration by carbonation of magnesium or calcium silicates under high pressure and high temperature can be successfully carried out by processing in an autoclave. The paper is focused on the influence of experimental parameters on avoiding scale formation during pre-treatment in an autoclave and a subsequent leaching. Amorphous silica and magnesite, respectively, were the main reaction products in a carbonation of olivine under high pressure conditions in an autoclave. In addition, the examined peridotites may be accompanied by small to medium amounts of nickel or other metals, the recovery of which will be investigated in the present study: Extraction of metals such as nickel, iron, and magnesium from olivine bearing ore using hydrochloric acid under atmospheric pressure was studied between 50 and 90 °C in 1 h. The obtained results have shown maximal leaching efficiency of about 35% for Ni, Fe, and Mg under atmospheric pressure, in comparison to more than 60% obtained under the same conditions after a carbonation pre-treatment in an autoclave. Silica gel was formed during leaching without a pre-treatment of peridotite blocking the leaching process, which is not the case for the pre-treated material. The influence of temperature, reaction time, particle size and pre-treatment of peridotite in an autoclave during carbonation at 175 °C and 71.5 bar was studied. A new mechanism model for metal extraction from olivine-bearing ore by avoiding silica gel formation during leaching with hydrochloric acid including a carbonation pre-treatment is proposed. This study explains additionally a behavior of metals such as nickel, magnesium, and iron during a carbonation of olivine bearing ore and leaching of a carbonated solid product. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Metals: Metallurgy and Metal Technology)
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18 pages, 6643 KiB  
Article
Development of Nanobainitic Microstructures in Carbo-Austempered Cast Steels: Heat Treatment, Microstructure and Properties
by Oscar Ríos-Diez, Ricardo Aristizábal-Sierra, Claudia Serna-Giraldo, Jose A. Jimenez and Carlos Garcia-Mateo
Metals 2020, 10(5), 635; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10050635 - 14 May 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2909
Abstract
Carburizing implies the existence of a carbon gradient from the surface to the core of the steel, which in turn will affect both the critical temperature for austenite formation and the kinetics of the bainitic transformation during the austempering treatment. Therefore, for future [...] Read more.
Carburizing implies the existence of a carbon gradient from the surface to the core of the steel, which in turn will affect both the critical temperature for austenite formation and the kinetics of the bainitic transformation during the austempering treatment. Therefore, for future development of carbo-austempered steels with nanobainitic microstructures in the case, it is key to understand the effect of such carbon gradient has on the final microstructure and the mechanical properties reached by the heat treatments used. This work was divided into two parts, firstly two alloys with similar carbon content to those at the surface and center of the carburized steel were used to establish the optimal heat treatment parameters and to study bainite transformation kinetics by high resolution dilatometry. In a second step, a carburized alloy is produced and subjected to the designed heat treatments, in order to evaluate the microstructure and mechanical properties developed. Results thus obtained are compared with those obtained in the same carburized alloy after following the most common quench and temper treatment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Metals: Metallurgy and Metal Technology)
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14 pages, 8299 KiB  
Article
Effect of Hydrogen on the Deformation Behavior and Localization of Plastic Deformation of the Ultrafine-Grained Zr–1Nb Alloy
by Ekaterina Stepanova, Galina Grabovetskaya, Maxim Syrtanov and Ivan Mishin
Metals 2020, 10(5), 592; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10050592 - 30 Apr 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2123
Abstract
In this paper, comparison studies of the hydrogen effect on the structural and phase state, deformation behavior, and mechanical properties of the fine- (average grain size 4 µm) and ultrafine-grained (average element size 0.3 and 0.4 µm) Zr–1wt.%Nb (hereinafter Zr–1Nb) alloy under tension [...] Read more.
In this paper, comparison studies of the hydrogen effect on the structural and phase state, deformation behavior, and mechanical properties of the fine- (average grain size 4 µm) and ultrafine-grained (average element size 0.3 and 0.4 µm) Zr–1wt.%Nb (hereinafter Zr–1Nb) alloy under tension at temperatures in the range of 293–873 K were conducted. The formation of an ultrafine-grained structure is established to increase the strength characteristics of the Zr–1Nb alloy by a factor of 1.5–2 with a simultaneous reduction of its resistance to the localization of plastic deformation at the macro level and the value of deformation to failure. The presence of hydrogen in the Zr–1Nb alloy in the form of a solid solution and hydride precipitates increases its resistance to the localization of plastic deformation at the macro level if the alloy has an ultrafine-grained structure and decreases if the structure of the alloy is fine-grained. In the studied temperature range, the Zr–1Nb alloy in the ultrafine-grained state has a higher resistance to hydrogen embrittlement than the alloy in the fine-grained state. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Metals: Metallurgy and Metal Technology)
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14 pages, 4030 KiB  
Article
Investigation on the Electrochemical Behaviour and Deposition Mechanism of Neodymium in NdF3–LiF–Nd2O3 Melt on Mo Electrode
by Vesna S. Cvetković, Dominic Feldhaus, Nataša M. Vukićević, Tanja S. Barudžija, Bernd Friedrich and Jovan N. Jovićević
Metals 2020, 10(5), 576; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10050576 - 28 Apr 2020
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2809
Abstract
Neodymium was electrochemically deposited from NdF3–LiF–Nd2O3 molten salt electrolyte onto the Mo electrode at temperatures close to 1273 K. Cyclic voltammetry and chronoamperometry measurements were the applied electrochemical methods. Metallic neodymium is obtained by potentiostatic deposition. The optical [...] Read more.
Neodymium was electrochemically deposited from NdF3–LiF–Nd2O3 molten salt electrolyte onto the Mo electrode at temperatures close to 1273 K. Cyclic voltammetry and chronoamperometry measurements were the applied electrochemical methods. Metallic neodymium is obtained by potentiostatic deposition. The optical microscopy and XRD were used to analyze the electrolyte, the working electrode surface, and the deposit on the electrode. It was established that Nd(III) ions were reduced to Nd metals in two steps: Nd(III) + e → Nd(II) at potential ≈−0.55 V vs. W and Nd(II) + 2e → Nd(0) at ≈−0.83 V vs. W. Both of these processes are reversible and under mass transfer control. Upon deposition under the regime of relatively small deposition overpotential of −0.10 V to −0.20 V, and after the electrolyte was cooled off, Nd metal was observed at the surface of the Mo electrode. CO and CF4 were gases registered as being evolved at the anode. CO and CF4 evolution were observed in quantities below 600 ppm and 10 ppm, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Metals: Metallurgy and Metal Technology)
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17 pages, 4813 KiB  
Article
Caliche and Seawater, Sources of Nitrate and Chloride Ions to Chalcopyrite Leaching in Acid Media
by Pía Hernández, Giovanni Gahona, Monserrat Martínez, Norman Toro and Jonathan Castillo
Metals 2020, 10(4), 551; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10040551 - 24 Apr 2020
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3210
Abstract
Hydrometallurgical processing of chalcopyrite is of great interest today due to the depletion of oxidized copper minerals. This will also enable existing plants to continue operation. The objective of this work is to study the behavior of chalcopyrite leaching by stirring in an [...] Read more.
Hydrometallurgical processing of chalcopyrite is of great interest today due to the depletion of oxidized copper minerals. This will also enable existing plants to continue operation. The objective of this work is to study the behavior of chalcopyrite leaching by stirring in an acid-nitrate-chloride media where seawater and brines provide chloride ions and nitrate ions can be provided from the caliche industry. The variables studied were sulfuric acid, nitrate and chloride concentration, source of water (dissolvent), temperature, solid/liquid ratio, particle size, mineral sample, and pretreatment before the leaching process. Despite being a refractory mineral, chalcopyrite can be leached in this system obtaining favorable recoveries at the conditions studied. It was possible to obtain 50% Cu in 0.7 M of H2SO4 and NaNO3, using brine at 45 °C. The nitrate-chloride-acid system was highly temperature dependent, with an activation energy of 82.6 kJ/mol, indicative of chemical reaction control of leaching kinetics. SEM/EDS indicated the presence of sulfur on the surface of the mineral after leaching. This study demonstrates that sources such as seawater or discard brines (such as from the reverse osmosis process) and waste (solid or solutions) from the caliche industry can provide a highly oxidative system for the dissolution of chalcopyrite. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Metals: Metallurgy and Metal Technology)
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12 pages, 5194 KiB  
Article
Effect of Proton Irradiation on the Defect Evolution of Zr/Nb Nanoscale Multilayers
by Roman Laptev, Anton Lomygin, Dmitriy Krotkevich, Maxim Syrtanov, Egor Kashkarov, Yuriy Bordulev, Krzysztof Siemek and Andrey Kobets
Metals 2020, 10(4), 535; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10040535 - 21 Apr 2020
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3032
Abstract
Nanoscale multilayer coatings (NMCs) with different crystal structures are considered as capable of self-healing after radiation damage due to the recombination of vacancies and interstitials. This work is focused on a defect distribution study of NMCs based on Zr/Nb layers (25/25 nm and [...] Read more.
Nanoscale multilayer coatings (NMCs) with different crystal structures are considered as capable of self-healing after radiation damage due to the recombination of vacancies and interstitials. This work is focused on a defect distribution study of NMCs based on Zr/Nb layers (25/25 nm and 100/100 nm) after proton irradiation. Coatings with a total thickness of 1.05 ± 0.05 µm were irradiated by 900-keV protons using a pelletron-type electrostatic accelerator with an ion current of 2 µA for durations of 60 min to 120 min. The influence of the irradiation effect was studied by X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), glow discharge optical emission spectrometry (GD–OES), and Doppler broadening spectroscopy using a variable energy positron beam. The results obtained by these methods are compatible and indicate that defect concentration of Zr/Nb NMCs remains unchanged or slightly decreases with increasing irradiation time. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Metals: Metallurgy and Metal Technology)
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11 pages, 4347 KiB  
Article
Extraction of Titanium from Low-Grade Ore with Different Leaching Agents in Autoclave
by Mario H. Rodriguez, Gustavo D. Rosales, Eliana G. Pinna, Fernando M. Tunez and Norman Toro
Metals 2020, 10(4), 497; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10040497 - 09 Apr 2020
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3313
Abstract
The progressive depletion of primary sources to obtain metals has led to the search for alternative sources for their recovery. In the particular case of titanium, titaniferous sands are a viable option for obtaining this metal. This paper presents the results of the [...] Read more.
The progressive depletion of primary sources to obtain metals has led to the search for alternative sources for their recovery. In the particular case of titanium, titaniferous sands are a viable option for obtaining this metal. This paper presents the results of the dissolution of titanium from titaniferous sands of Buenos Aires province (Argentina) in a laboratory autoclave (450 mL of capacity). The operating parameters studied were as follows: different acids (HF, H2SO4 and mixtures of these acids); leaching agent concentration, 5–20% v/v; temperature, 75–150 °C; time, 30–180 min; solid–liquid ratio, 0.9–3.6% w/v; stirring speed, 110–550 rpm. The obtained results indicate that the increase in the leaching agent(s) concentration, temperature and time of contact with the acid mixtures have a marked effect on the dissolution reaction of titanium. Optimal conditions to achieve 89% extraction of titanium were obtained by leaching at 123 °C, 330 rpm, 80 min and 1.8% w/v with a mixture of 15% HF (v/v) and 10% H2SO4 (v/v). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Metals: Metallurgy and Metal Technology)
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11 pages, 1418 KiB  
Article
Statistical Study for Leaching of Covellite in a Chloride Media
by Kevin Pérez, Norman Toro, Manuel Saldaña, Eleazar Salinas-Rodríguez, Pedro Robles, David Torres and Ricardo I. Jeldres
Metals 2020, 10(4), 477; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10040477 - 04 Apr 2020
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2802
Abstract
Covellite is a secondary copper sulfide, and it is not abundant. There are few investigations on this mineral in spite of it being formed during the leaching of chalcocite or digenite; the other investigations on covellite are with the use of mineraloids, copper [...] Read more.
Covellite is a secondary copper sulfide, and it is not abundant. There are few investigations on this mineral in spite of it being formed during the leaching of chalcocite or digenite; the other investigations on covellite are with the use of mineraloids, copper concentrates, and synthetic covellite. The present investigation applied the surface optimization methodology using a central composite face design to evaluate the effect of leaching time, chloride concentration, and sulfuric acid concentration on the level of copper extraction from covellite (84.3% of purity). Copper is dissolved from a sample of pure covellite without the application of temperature or pressure; the importance of its purity is that the behavior of the parameters is analyzed, isolating the impurities that affect leaching. The chloride came from NaCl, and it was effectuated in a size range from –150 to +106 μm. An ANOVA indicated that the leaching time and chloride concentration have the most significant influence, while the copper extraction was independent of sulfuric acid concentration. The experimental data were described by a highly representative quadratic model obtained by linear regression (R2 = 0.99). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Metals: Metallurgy and Metal Technology)
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13 pages, 1565 KiB  
Article
The Adsorption Behavior of Moisture on Smelter Grade Alumina during Transportation and Storage—for Primary Aluminum Production
by Youjian Yang, Wenju Tao, Weicheng Liu, Xianwei Hu, Zhaowen Wang, Zhongning Shi and Xin Shu
Metals 2020, 10(3), 325; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10030325 - 29 Feb 2020
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2918
Abstract
Smelter grade alumina (SGA) plays multiple roles in the Hall–Héroult process for primary aluminum production. Given its very porous nature, one major role of SGA is to adsorb toxic hydrogen fluoride (HF) in the dry scrubber. However, also because of its porous nature, [...] Read more.
Smelter grade alumina (SGA) plays multiple roles in the Hall–Héroult process for primary aluminum production. Given its very porous nature, one major role of SGA is to adsorb toxic hydrogen fluoride (HF) in the dry scrubber. However, also because of its porous nature, SGA inevitably adsorbs ambient moisture. This paper discusses the influence of alumina properties, including pore size distribution and specific surface area, on the physical adsorption of water vapor on SGA, as well as the adsorption kinetics. The result shows that the adsorption enthalpy of moisture on SGA is in the range of 4–13 kJ/mol. The adsorption capacity increases significantly with the particle specific surface area and total pore volume. A higher adsorption temperature indicates a much faster adsorption rate but corresponds to a lower equilibrium adsorption capacity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Metals: Metallurgy and Metal Technology)
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15 pages, 4872 KiB  
Article
Study on Inclusions Distribution and Cyclic Fatigue Performance of Gear Steel 18CrNiMo7-6 Forging
by Min Wang, Wei Xiao, Peng Gan, Chao Gu and Yan-Ping Bao
Metals 2020, 10(2), 201; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10020201 - 31 Jan 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2884
Abstract
The three-dimensional morphologies of inclusions in gear steel 18CrNiMo7-6 forging were investigated by a non-destructive extraction method, and the cleanliness of radial positions was analyzed, mainly including the variation of total oxygen content and the distribution of size and quantity of inclusions. In [...] Read more.
The three-dimensional morphologies of inclusions in gear steel 18CrNiMo7-6 forging were investigated by a non-destructive extraction method, and the cleanliness of radial positions was analyzed, mainly including the variation of total oxygen content and the distribution of size and quantity of inclusions. In addition, fatigue performance was tested using an ultrasonic fatigue machine to investigate the fatigue characteristics of the steel. The results show that the quantity density of inclusions per unit volume in gear steel 18CrNiMo7-6 decreases exponentially with increasing size, oxide inclusions with a size less than 8 μm account for more than 90%, while sulfide inclusions account for more than 85%. The average value of the oxygen content can reflect the level of inclusions that were evenly distributed in the molten steel, and the accumulative total oxygen content increases significantly with increasing inclusion size. The fatigue specimen failed after the stress exceeded the critical value, and fatigue failure hardly occurred when the stress was below the critical value. Meanwhile, large-sized nondeformable inclusions such as Al2O3-CaO in gear steel 18CrNiMo7-6 are closely related to fatigue failure. It is recommended that the area from the center to the 1/2 radius with low cleanliness should be avoided, while the area from the 3/4 radius to the edge with high cleanliness should be selected during the machining of the gear. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Metals: Metallurgy and Metal Technology)
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