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Enhancing the Efficiency of Membrane Processes for Water Treatment

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A special issue of Membranes (ISSN 2077-0375). This special issue belongs to the section "Membrane Processing and Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 July 2020) | Viewed by 40769

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Prof. Dr. Stefan Panglisch

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Guest Editor

Mechanical Process Engineering and Water Technology, University of Duisburg-Essen, 47057 Duisburg, Germany
Interests: membrane processes; adsorption; drinking water treatment; hybride processes
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Ibrahim M.A. Elsherbiny

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Guest Editor

University Duisburg-Essen (UDE), Chair of Mechanical Process Engineering / Water Technology, Lotharstr. 1, Duisburg 47057, Germany
Interests: pressure-driven membrane processes; membrane hybrid processes; polymeric membranes; polymer composite materials; surface functionalization; surface micropatterning; stimuli-responsive polymers

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Pressure-driven membrane processes are globally recognized as an essential element in sustainable water management systems thanks to their intrinsic advantages, when compared to conventional processes, as well as to their versatility. Today, pressure-driven membrane processes are used for water treatment, purification, and reuse. Despite successful development in recent decades of membrane filtration up to the industrial scale, huge interest in optimization of membrane process still exists. This has been realized so far through various approaches—for instance, introduction of ultralow pressure or low fouling membranes, improving membrane retention and/or selectivity, increasing membrane life span, in addition to reducing energy consumption and use of chemicals. In addition to advanced membrane materials and module design, optimization of membrane processes or combining them with other treatment processes have increasingly become the focus of engineering researchers. The ultimate objective is commonly to further promote membrane process efficiency towards more sustainable, cost-effective, and environmentally-friendly water treatment applications.

This Special Issue is devoted to “Enhancing the Efficiency of Membrane Processes for Water Treatment”. Authors are invited to submit their contributions in forms of research articles (based on either lab-scale or pilot-scale experiments, or simulation results), technical reporting, case studies, and critical reviews. Relevant topics include:

Treatment of surface water, sea- and brackish water, produced water, and concentrates (including also advanced wastewater treatment but excluding MBR for wastewater treatment) using organic (polymeric), inorganic (ceramic), as well as composite materials;
Improvement of membrane retention, selectivity and/or permeability, recovery, or operational costs;
Advanced operating procedures, e.g., membrane cleaning, dynamic flux operation, online process monitoring and controlling;
Process combinations (hybridization) with well-established or new processes;
System design, with regard to element level, module design, and module arrangements;
Costs assessment studies toward membrane process optimization.

Prof. Dr. Stefan Panglisch
Dr. Ibrahim M.A. Elsherbiny
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Membranes is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Water treatment
Pressure-driven membrane processes
Process efficiency optimization
Membrane hybrid systems
Operating procedures
System design
Cost assessment

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research

4 pages, 193 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Enhancing the Efficiency of Membrane Processes for Water Treatment

by Ibrahim M.A. ElSherbiny and Stefan Panglisch

Membranes 2021, 11(3), 215; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes11030215 - 19 Mar 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2299

Abstract

Pressure-driven membrane processes, i [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing the Efficiency of Membrane Processes for Water Treatment)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

18 pages, 5236 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hybrid Ceramic Membranes for the Removal of Pharmaceuticals from Aqueous Solutions

by Jenny Radeva, Anke Gundula Roth, Christian Göbbert, Robert Niestroj-Pahl, Lars Dähne, Axel Wolfram and Jürgen Wiese

Membranes 2021, 11(4), 280; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes11040280 - 10 Apr 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3254

Abstract

Layer-by-Layer (LbL) technology was used to coat alumina ceramic membranes with nanosized polyelectrolyte films. The polyelectrolyte chains form a network with nanopores on the ceramic surface and promote the rejection of small molecules such as pharmaceuticals, salts and industrial contaminants, which can otherwise not be eliminated using standard ultrafiltration methods. The properties and performance of newly developed hybrid membranes are in the focus of this investigation. The homogeneity of the applied coating layer was investigated by confocal fluorescence microscopy and scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM). Properties such as permeability, bubble point, pore size distribution and Zeta potential were determined for both pristine and LbL coated membranes using various laboratory tests. Subsequently, a thorough comparison was drawn. The charging behavior at solid-liquid interface was characterized using streaming potential techniques. The retention potential was monitored by subjecting widely used pharmaceuticals such as diclofenac, ibuprofen and sulfamethoxazol. The results prove a successful elimination of pharmaceutical contaminants, up to 84% from drinking water, by applying a combination of polyelectrolyte multilayers and ceramic membranes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing the Efficiency of Membrane Processes for Water Treatment)

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19 pages, 5234 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adsorption/Coagulation/Ceramic Microfiltration for Treating Challenging Waters for Drinking Water Production

by Margarida Campinas, Rui M. C. Viegas, Rosário Coelho, Helena Lucas and Maria João Rosa

Membranes 2021, 11(2), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes11020091 - 27 Jan 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2200

Abstract

Pressurized powdered activated carbon/coagulation/ceramic microfiltration (PAC/Alum/MF) was investigated at pilot scale for treating low turbidity and low natural organic matter (NOM) surface waters spiked with organic microcontaminants. A total of 11 trials with clarified or non-clarified waters spiked with pesticides, pharmaceutical compounds, or microcystins were conducted to assess the removal of microcontaminants, NOM (as 254 nm absorbance, A254, and dissolved organic carbon, DOC), trihalomethane formation potential (THMFP), aerobic endospores as protozoan (oo)cysts indicators, bacteriophages as viruses indicators, and regular drinking water quality parameters. PAC/(Alum)/MF achieved 75% to complete removal of total microcontaminants with 4–18 mg/L of a mesoporous PAC and 2 h contact time, with a reliable particle separation (turbidity < 0.03 NTU) and low aluminium residuals. Microcontaminants showed different amenabilities to PAC adsorption, depending on their charge, hydrophobicity (Log Kow), polar surface area and aromatic rings count. Compounds less amenable to adsorption showed higher vulnerability to NOM competition (higher A254 waters), greatly benefiting from DOC-normalized PAC dose increase. PAC/Alum/MF also attained 29–47% NOM median removal, decreasing THMFP by 26%. PAC complemented NOM removal by coagulation (+15–19%), though with no substantial improvement towards THMFP and membrane fouling. Furthermore, PAC/Alum/MF was a full barrier against aerobic endospores, and PAC dosing was crucial for ≥1.1-log reduction in bacteriophages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing the Efficiency of Membrane Processes for Water Treatment)

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18 pages, 5749 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Removal of Trace Organic Contaminants by Parallel Operation of Reverse Osmosis and Granular Activated Carbon for Drinking Water Treatment

by Norbert Konradt, Jan Gerrit Kuhlen, Hans-Peter Rohns, Birgitt Schmitt, Uwe Fischer, Timo Binder, Vera Schumacher, Christoph Wagner, Stefan Kamphausen, Uwe Müller, Frank Sacher, Peter Janknecht, Ralph Hobby, Ibrahim M. A. ElSherbiny and Stefan Panglisch

Membranes 2021, 11(1), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes11010033 - 02 Jan 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3875

Abstract

In response to increasingly stringent restrictions for drinking water quality, a parallel operation of two common technologies, low-pressure reverse osmosis (LPRO) and activated carbon filtration (ACF), was investigated in a comprehensive five-month pilot study for the removal of 32 typical trace organic contaminants (TrOCs) from Rhine bank filtrates employing a semi- technical plant. TrOCs have been divided into three groups: polyfluorinated aliphatic compounds; pharmaceuticals, pesticides and metabolites; in addition to volatiles, nitrosamines and aminopolycarboxylic acids, which were also examined. The net pressure behavior, normalized salt passage and rejection of TrOCs by LPRO were investigated and compared with ACF operation. In addition, autopsies from the leading and last membrane modules were performed using adenosine triphosphate (ATP), total organic carbon (TOC), ICP-OES and SEM-EDX techniques. Generally, rather stable LPRO membrane performance with limited membrane fouling was observed. TrOCs with a molecular weight of ≥ 150 Da were completely retained by LPRO, while the rejection of di- and trichloro compounds improved as the filtration progressed. ACF also showed significant removal for most of the TrOCs, but without desalination. Accordingly, the ACF and LPRO can be operated in parallel such that the LPRO permeate and the ACF-treated bypass can be mixed to produce drinking water with adjustable hardness and significantly reduced TrOCs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing the Efficiency of Membrane Processes for Water Treatment)

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19 pages, 5191 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A New Method for a Polyethersulfone-Based Dopamine-Graphene (xGnP-DA/PES) Nanocomposite Membrane in Low/Ultra-Low Pressure Reverse Osmosis (L/ULPRO) Desalination

by Lwazi Ndlwana, Mxolisi M. Motsa and Bhekie B. Mamba

Membranes 2020, 10(12), 439; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes10120439 - 18 Dec 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2911

Abstract

Herein we present a two-stage phase inversion method for the preparation of nanocomposite membranes for application in ultra-low-pressure reverse osmosis (ULPRO). The membranes containing DA-stabilized xGnP (xGnP-DA-) were then prepared via dry phase inversion at room temperature, varying the drying time, followed by quenching in water. The membranes were characterized for chemical changes utilizing attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The results indicated the presence of new chemical species and thus, the inclusion of xGnP-DA in the polyethersulfone (PES) membrane matrix. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) showed increasing surface roughness (R_a) with increased drying time. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed the cross-sectional morphology of the membranes. Water uptake, porosity and pore size were observed to decrease due to this new synthetic approach. Salt rejection using simulated seawater (containing Na, K, Ca, and Mg salts) was found to be up to stable at <99.99% between 1–8 bars operating pressure. After ten fouling and cleaning cycles, flux recoveries of <99.5% were recorded, while the salt rejection was <99.95%. As such, ULPRO membranes can be successfully prepared through altered phase inversion and used for successful desalination of seawater. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing the Efficiency of Membrane Processes for Water Treatment)

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22 pages, 2811 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reducing the Impacts of Biofouling in RO Membrane Systems through In Situ Low Fluence Irradiation Employing UVC-LEDs

by Philipp Sperle, Christian Wurzbacher, Jörg E. Drewes and Bertram Skibinski

Membranes 2020, 10(12), 415; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes10120415 - 11 Dec 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3140

Abstract

Biofouling is a major concern for numerous reverse osmosis membrane systems. UV pretreatment of the feed stream showed promising results but is still not an established technology as it does not maintain a residual effect. By conducting accelerated biofouling experiments in this study, it was investigated whether low fluence UV in situ treatment of the feed using UVC light-emitting diodes (UVC-LEDs) has a lasting effect on the biofilm. The application of UVC-LEDs for biofouling control is a novel hybrid technology that has not been investigated, yet. It could be shown that a low fluence of 2 mJ∙cm⁻² delays biofilm formation by more than 15% in lab-scale experiments. In addition, biofilms at the same feed channel pressure drop exhibited a more than 40% reduced hydraulic resistance. The delay is probably linked to the inactivation of cells in the feed stream, modified adsorption properties or an induced cell cycle arrest. The altered hydraulic resistance might be caused by a change in the microbial community, as well as reduced adenosine triphosphate levels per cells, possibly impacting quorum sensing and extracellular polymeric substances production. Due to the observed biofilm attributes, low fluence UV-LED in situ treatment of the feed stream seems to be a promising technology for biofouling control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing the Efficiency of Membrane Processes for Water Treatment)

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15 pages, 3421 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization and Performance of LbL-Coated Multibore Membranes: Zeta Potential, MWCO, Permeability and Sulfate Rejection

by Saskia Dillmann, Shambhavi Arvind Kaushik, Jakob Stumme and Mathias Ernst

Membranes 2020, 10(12), 412; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes10120412 - 10 Dec 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3003

Abstract

The characterization of membranes is suitable to investigate changes in the membrane properties caused by Layer-by-Layer (LbL) modification. Besides permeability, rejection, and molecular-weight cut-off (MWCO), which give information about the modification of the separation behaviour of the membrane, the zeta potential is capable of describing the surface charge of the membrane and its variation impacted by the properties of the polyelectrolyte multilayers (PEM). In this study, a new method for zeta potential measurement of hollow fibre membranes with several capillaries was developed and further investigations on the LbL modification of such membranes were performed. The results showed that an LbL coating with 8 DL PDADMAC/PSS led to a significant increase in the membrane charge of more than 20 mV. The coating with a different number of polyelectrolyte (PE) layers showed a zig-zag behaviour, comparable to data from flat sheet studies. However, in contrast to most flat sheet membranes, the charge curve assumes a totally negative trajectory at neutral pH. Further experiments on the MWCO of the LbL-modified membrane showed a reduction in the pore diameter from approx. 20 nm to less than 2 nm, reaching the range of nanofiltration membranes. With information on both the zeta potential and the MWCO, it was found that the rejection mechanism in LbL-modified multibore membranes is a complex interplay between the sieving effect due to reduction in the pore diameter and the repulsion effect of the charged membrane. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing the Efficiency of Membrane Processes for Water Treatment)

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17 pages, 4313 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance of Layer-by-Layer-Modified Multibore^® Ultrafiltration Capillary Membranes for Salt Retention and Removal of Antibiotic Resistance Genes

by Robert Niestroj-Pahl, Lara Stelmaszyk, Ibrahim M. A. ElSherbiny, Hussein Abuelgasim, Michaela Krug, Christian Staaks, Greta Birkholz, Harald Horn, Tian Li, Bingzhi Dong, Lars Dähne, Andreas Tiehm and Stefan Panglisch

Membranes 2020, 10(12), 398; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes10120398 - 06 Dec 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2465

Abstract

Polyether sulfone Multibore^® ultrafiltration membranes were modified using polyelectrolyte multilayers via the layer-by-layer (LbL) technique in order to increase their rejection capabilities towards salts and antibiotic resistance genes. The modified capillary membranes were characterized to exhibit a molecular weight cut-off (at 90% rejection) of 384 Da. The zeta-potential at pH 7 was −40 mV. Laboratory tests using single-fiber modified membrane modules were performed to evaluate the removal of antibiotic resistance genes; the LbL-coated membranes were able to completely retain DNA fragments from 90 to 1500 nt in length. Furthermore, the pure water permeability and the retention of single inorganic salts, MgSO₄, CaCl₂ and NaCl, were measured using a mini-plant testing unit. The modified membranes had a retention of 80% toward MgSO₄ and CaCl₂ salts, and 23% in case of NaCl. The modified membranes were also found to be stable against mechanical backwashing (up to 80 LMH) and chemical regeneration (in acidic conditions and basic/oxidizing conditions). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing the Efficiency of Membrane Processes for Water Treatment)

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24 pages, 4296 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Removal of Naturally Occurring Strontium by Nanofiltration/Reverse Osmosis from Groundwater

by Yang-Hui Cai, Xiao Jin Yang and Andrea Iris Schäfer

Membranes 2020, 10(11), 321; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes10110321 - 30 Oct 2020

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 3017

Abstract

Removal of naturally occurring strontium (Sr) from groundwater is vital as excessive exposure may lead to bone growth problems in children. Nanofiltration/reverse osmosis (NF/RO) is commonly used in groundwater treatment due to the high effectiveness and simple maintenance of these pressure driven membrane processes. In this research, a pilot-scale NF/RO system was used to desalinate a natural groundwater sample containing high Sr concentration (10.3 mg/L) and “old” groundwater organic matter (70.9 mg/L) from Esilalei in northern Tanzania to understand the removal of strontium by NF/RO. The impact of applied pressure (10–15 bar) and groundwater pH (3–12) on the membrane performance including permeate flux, strontium and total organic carbon (TOC) flux and removal was investigated. Increasing applied pressure was found to enhance the flux by increasing the driving force and enhance Sr and TOC removal by dilution effect (water flux higher than Sr passage). The alkaline pH caused severe flux decline likely due to membrane fouling and scaling, while it slightly enhanced Sr removal of RO membranes, but weakened the TOC removal. In contrast, acidic and neutral pH of groundwater enhanced TOC removal. These findings suggest that appropriately high applied pressure and acidic pH condition of groundwater are recommended to apply to the NF/RO membrane system in groundwater desalination to achieve better membrane performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing the Efficiency of Membrane Processes for Water Treatment)

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9 pages, 5909 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detergent and Water Recovery from Laundry Wastewater Using Tilted Panel Membrane Filtration System

by Nafiu Umar Barambu, Derrick Peter, Mohd Hizami Mohd Yusoff, Muhammad Roil Bilad, Norazanita Shamsuddin, Lisendra Marbelia, Nik Abdul Hadi Nordin and Juhana Jaafar

Membranes 2020, 10(10), 260; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes10100260 - 27 Sep 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4019

Abstract

Increasing global concern on clean water scarcity and environmental sustainability drive invention in water reclamation technology. Laundry wastewater reclamation via membrane technology faces the challenge of membrane fouling. This paper assesses a tilting-the-filtration-panel filtration system for the treatment of real laundry wastewater filtration aimed for water and detergent reuse. Results showed that the panel tilting significantly improved fouling control and enhanced permeability due to enhanced contact of air bubbles with the membrane surface, which induced continuous detachment of foulant from the membrane surface. The combination of aeration rate and tilting angle resulted in up to 83% permeability enhancement from 109 to 221.4 ± 10.8 (L/m²·h·bar). The system also offers 32% detergent recovery. Overall findings suggest that the system offers an attractive approach for both fouling management and detergent recovery and can potentially be applied under a simple setup in which filtration can be driven by gravity/hydrostatic pressure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing the Efficiency of Membrane Processes for Water Treatment)

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17 pages, 3128 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ozone Chemically Enhanced Backwash for Ceramic Membrane Fouling Control in Cyanobacteria-Laden Water

by Stéphane Venne, Onita D. Basu and Benoit Barbeau

Membranes 2020, 10(9), 213; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes10090213 - 30 Aug 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3109

Abstract

Membrane fouling in surface waters impacted by cyanobacteria is currently poorly controlled and results in high operating costs. A chemically enhanced backwash (CEB) is one possible strategy to mitigate cyanobacteria fouling. This research investigates the potential of using an ozone CEB to control the fouling caused by Microcystis aeruginosa in filtered surface water on a ceramic ultrafiltration membrane. Batch ozonation tests and dead-end, continuous flow experiments were conducted with ozone doses between 0 and 19 mg O3/mg carbon. In all tests, the ozone was shown to react more rapidly with the filtered surface water foulants than with cyanobacteria. In addition, the ozone CEB demonstrated an improved mitigation of irreversible fouling over 2 cycles versus a single CEB cycle; indicating that the ozone CEB functioned better as the cake layer developed. Ozone likely weakens the compressible cake layer formed by cyanobacteria on the membrane surface during filtration, which then becomes more hydraulically reversible. In fact, the ozone CEB reduced the fouling resistance by 35% more than the hydraulic backwash when the cake was more compressed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing the Efficiency of Membrane Processes for Water Treatment)

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12 pages, 1611 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Membrane–Electrocoagulation System for Removal of Celestine Blue Dyes in Wastewater

by Muhammad Syaamil Saad, Lila Balasubramaniam, Mohd Dzul Hakim Wirzal, Nur Syakinah Abd Halim, Muhammad Roil Bilad, Nik Abdul Hadi Md Nordin, Zulfan Adi Putra and Fuad Nabil Ramli

Membranes 2020, 10(8), 184; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes10080184 - 13 Aug 2020

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3077

Abstract

The textile industry provides for the needs of people especially in apparel and household items. The industry also discharges dye-containing wastewater that is typically challenging to treat. Despite the application of the biological and chemical treatments for the treatment of textile wastewater, these methods have their own drawbacks such as non-environment friendly, high cost and energy intensive. This research investigates the efficiency of the celestine blue dye removal from simulated textile wastewater by electrocoagulation (EC) method using iron (Fe) electrodes through an electrolytic cell, integrated with nylon 6,6 nanofiber (NF) membrane filtration for the separation of the flocculants from aqueous water. Based on the results, the integrated system achieves a high dye removal efficiency of 79.4%, by using 1000 ppm of sodium chloride as the electrolyte and 2 V of voltage at a constant pH of 7 and 10 ppm celestine blue dye solution, compared to the standalone EC method in which only 43.2% removal was achieved. Atomic absorption spectroscopy analysis was used to identify the traces of iron in the residual EC solution confirming the absence of iron. The EC-integrated membrane system thus shows superior performance compared to the conventional method whereby an additional 10–30% of dye was removed at 1 V and 2 V using similar energy consumptions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing the Efficiency of Membrane Processes for Water Treatment)

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12 pages, 1663 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Minimum Net Driving Temperature Concept for Membrane Distillation

by Bastiaan Blankert, Johannes S. Vrouwenvelder, Geert-Jan Witkamp and Noreddine Ghaffour

Membranes 2020, 10(5), 100; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes10050100 - 14 May 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3136

Abstract

In this study, we analyzed the heat requirement of membrane distillation (MD) to investigate the trade-off between the evaporation efficiency and driving force efficiency in a single effect MD system. We found that there exists a non-zero net driving temperature difference that maximizes efficiency. This is the minimum net driving temperature difference necessary for a rational operational strategy because below the minimum net driving temperature, both the productivity and efficiency can be increased by increasing the temperature difference. The minimum net driving temperature has a similar magnitude to the boiling point elevation (~0.5 °C for seawater), and depends on the properties of the membrane and the heat exchanger. The minimum net driving temperature difference concept can be used to understand the occurrence of optimal values of other parameters, such as flux, membrane thickness, and membrane length, if these parameters are varied in a way that consequently varies the net driving temperature difference. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing the Efficiency of Membrane Processes for Water Treatment)

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