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17 pages, 2577 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stabilization of Chromium Waste by Solidification into Cement Composites

by Cherif Belebchouche, Salah-Eddine Bensebti, Chaima Ould-Said, Karim Moussaceb, Slawomir Czarnecki and Lukasz Sadowski

Materials 2023, 16(18), 6295; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16186295 - 20 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1302

Abstract

This article deals with the study of hazardous chromium leaching, stabilized/solidified by cement CEM II after 28 days of curing, in an acidic environment. The mortars subjected to this study were investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD) characterization to evaluate the influence of chromium [...] Read more.

This article deals with the study of hazardous chromium leaching, stabilized/solidified by cement CEM II after 28 days of curing, in an acidic environment. The mortars subjected to this study were investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD) characterization to evaluate the influence of chromium waste on their mineralogical structure. In the study range (0.6–1.2%), increasing the mass percentage of Cr₂O₃ in the mortars indicates that chromium accelerates the hydration process and setting of the mortar and increases the mechanical strength of the mortars compared to the control sample. It was observed that the release of chromium during the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) test and the efficiency of the stabilization/solidification process depended on the initial Cr concentration and the leaching time. The use of XRD allowed the identification of new crystallized phases in the cement matrices, namely, CaCrO₄·2H₂O and chromium–ettringite Ca₆Cr₂(SO₄)₃(OH)₁₂·26H₂O, which confirms the immobilization of chromium and the efficiency of the stabilization/solidification process. In this research, the release mechanism was found to be primarily a surface phenomenon by modeling the experimental data (dissolution or precipitation). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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23 pages, 5648 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Scale Effect on Bearing Capacity of Undrained Subsoil: Implications for Seismic Resilience of Shallow Foundations

by Zofia Zięba, Małgorzata Krokowska, Marek Wyjadłowski, Janusz Vitalis Kozubal, Tomasz Kania and Jakub Mońka

Materials 2023, 16(16), 5631; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16165631 - 15 Aug 2023

Viewed by 677

Abstract

This research investigates the influence of the scale effect on the bearing capacity of fine-grained subsoil under undrained conditions. The analyses were conducted based on laboratory tests of silty clay. Uniformly compacted samples were subjected to an unconfined compression test. The research was [...] Read more.

This research investigates the influence of the scale effect on the bearing capacity of fine-grained subsoil under undrained conditions. The analyses were conducted based on laboratory tests of silty clay. Uniformly compacted samples were subjected to an unconfined compression test. The research was performed on cylindrical specimens. Three different variants of the diameter D (38 mm, 70 mm, 100 mm) and the corresponding height H = 2D were analyzed. Based on the tests results, the unconfined compression strength q_u was determined, and from this, the undrained shear strength c_u was calculated. The obtained results showed a clear decrease in c_u with increasing sample size. However, in the existing reference documents, there are no specific guidelines for calculations of bearing capacity with consideration of sample size effect on the soil shear strength. Therefore, this study utilized the laboratory soil test data to calculate the bearing capacity of undrained subsoil, taking into account the seismic impacts, with a particular focus on spread foundations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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10 pages, 2088 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Properties of Lightweight Insulating Boards Produced from Triticale Straw Particles

by Mariusz Lesiecki, Jakub Kawalerczyk, Adam Derkowski, Marek Wieruszewski, Dorota Dziurka and Radosław Mirski

Materials 2023, 16(15), 5272; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16155272 - 27 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 630

Abstract

Insulating materials made from straw are becoming increasingly popular in the construction industry. Straw can be used in the construction of buildings as uncompressed straw chips or in the form of compressed panels. This study aimed to determine the possibility of manufacturing boards [...] Read more.

Insulating materials made from straw are becoming increasingly popular in the construction industry. Straw can be used in the construction of buildings as uncompressed straw chips or in the form of compressed panels. This study aimed to determine the possibility of manufacturing boards from straw particles with densities in the range of 150–400 kg/m³, allowing favorable mechanical properties while simultaneously providing high thermal and acoustic insulation properties. The study also analyzed the influence of the degree of carpentry density on the quality of the manufactured boards. The study shows that insulation boards can be produced from straw particles with satisfactory properties already at densities in the range of 200–150 kg/m³. Boards with this density have a compressive strength of 150 kPa, thermal resistance of 0.033–0.046 W/(m·K), and a sound absorption coefficient above 0.31. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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17 pages, 10322 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating the Effects of Recycled Aggregate and Mineral Admixtures on the Mechanical Properties and Performance of Concrete

by Amal Fawzy, Ahmed Elshami and Seleem Ahmad

Materials 2023, 16(14), 5134; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16145134 - 21 Jul 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1365

Abstract

In this work, the effects of recycled concrete aggregate, modified with mineral admixtures and nanosilica, on the mechanical properties and performance of concrete after curing in tap water for 28 and 90 days were investigated. The compressive (ƒ_c), indirect tensile (ƒ [...] Read more.

In this work, the effects of recycled concrete aggregate, modified with mineral admixtures and nanosilica, on the mechanical properties and performance of concrete after curing in tap water for 28 and 90 days were investigated. The compressive (ƒ_c), indirect tensile (ƒ_t), and flexural (ƒ_b) strengths for the cured concrete specimens were measured, and the concrete strength ratios were analyzed. The water and rapid chloride permeabilities were measured. SEM analysis of the microstructure was also performed. The coarse aggregates used were dolomite (control) and recycled concrete aggregate, incorporating different mineral admixtures, including ground, granulated blast slag, granite, and nanosilica. It was found that the slump values of the dolomite concrete decreased compared with recycled aggregate concrete. Compared to the control mix produced with the recycled aggregate, the slump value of the concrete mixes created with the recycled aggregate increased by approximately 11.1% with the addition of binary cementing materials of 1% NS. The results also indicate that the concrete mix containing the recycled aggregate had the highest compressive strength, tensile strength, and flexural strength compared to that of the dolomite aggregate. Regarding the compressive strength, the addition of 1% NS and 15% slag improved the physico-mechanical properties of the recycled aggregate concretes compared to the other mixes after curing in tap water. Compared to the other mixes, the concrete mix containing 1% NS and 15% slag had a comparatively dense and compact microstructure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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0 pages, 7082 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nano-Clay Platelet Integration for Enhanced Bending Performance of Concrete Beams Resting on Elastic Foundation: An Analytical Investigation

by Mohammed Chatbi, Zouaoui R. Harrat, Mohammed A. Benatta, Baghdad Krour, Marijana Hadzima-Nyarko, Ercan Işık, Slawomir Czarnecki and Mohamed Bachir Bouiadjra

Materials 2023, 16(14), 5040; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16145040 - 17 Jul 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1204

Abstract

Acknowledging the growing impact of nanotechnologies across various fields, this engaging research paper focuses on harnessing the potential of nano-sized materials as enhancers for concretes. The paper emphasizes the strategic integration of these entities to comprehensively improve the strength and performance of concrete [...] Read more.

Acknowledging the growing impact of nanotechnologies across various fields, this engaging research paper focuses on harnessing the potential of nano-sized materials as enhancers for concretes. The paper emphasizes the strategic integration of these entities to comprehensively improve the strength and performance of concrete matrixes. To achieve this, an analytical study is conducted to investigate the static behavior of concrete beams infused with different types of clay nano-platelets (NC’s), employing quasi-3D beam theory. The study leverages the effective Eshelby’s homogenization model to determine the equivalent elastic characteristics of the nanocomposite. The intricate interactions of the soil medium are captured through the use of a Winkler–Pasternak elastic foundation. By employing virtual work principles, the study derives equations of motion and proposes analytical solutions based on Navier’s theory to unravel the equilibrium equations of simply supported concrete beams. The results shed light on influential factors, such as the clay nano-platelet type, volume percentage, geometric parameters, and soil medium, providing insights into the static behavior of the beams. Moreover, this research presents previously unreported referential results, highlighting the potential of clay nano-platelets as reinforcements for enhancing structural mechanical resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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17 pages, 5552 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effectiveness of Strengthening RC Beams Using Composite Materials—An Accelerated Strengthening Method

by Dorota Michałowska-Maziejuk and Barbara Goszczyńska

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4847; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134847 - 06 Jul 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1027

Abstract

The article analyses the results obtained from tests of preloaded reinforced concrete beams strengthened with carbon fibre strips bonded into the concrete reinforcement cover (NSMR method). Adhesive (thixotropic epoxy resin) bonding takes 7 days at 23 °C. The strengthening process was accelerated by [...] Read more.

The article analyses the results obtained from tests of preloaded reinforced concrete beams strengthened with carbon fibre strips bonded into the concrete reinforcement cover (NSMR method). Adhesive (thixotropic epoxy resin) bonding takes 7 days at 23 °C. The strengthening process was accelerated by heating the strip using a prototype heating device. Tests on the reinforced concrete members confirmed that accelerating the strengthening process is feasible and allowed the selection of the optimal heating temperature to provide the greatest strengthening level. The study primarily aimed to analyse the effectiveness of strengthening applied to the bottom of reinforced concrete beams under sustained loading throughout the adhesive curing process, simulating real conditions on site. Significantly higher strengthening efficiency was achieved with the use of strip heating, which accelerated adhesive cure time and reduced the strengthening execution time from 7 days to 1.5 h. The analysis included the evaluation of the effect of the steel and composite reinforcement ratios on strengthening effectiveness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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15 pages, 6984 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Technical Condition of a Late 19th Century Public Building in Łódź

by Wioletta Grzmil, Justyna Zapała-Sławeta and Jagoda Juruś

Materials 2023, 16(5), 1983; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16051983 - 28 Feb 2023

Viewed by 1013

Abstract

Heritage building structures in many situations contribute unique value to national cultural heritage. In engineering practice, monitoring of historic structures includes visual assessment. This article assesses the condition of the concrete in one of the most recognizable buildings in Łódź, the former German [...] Read more.

Heritage building structures in many situations contribute unique value to national cultural heritage. In engineering practice, monitoring of historic structures includes visual assessment. This article assesses the condition of the concrete in one of the most recognizable buildings in Łódź, the former German Reformed Gymnasium, located at Tadeusza Kościuszki Avenue. The paper reports a visual assessment of the structure and the degree of technical wear affecting selected structural components of the building. A historical analysis of the building’s state of preservation, characterization of the structural system, and an assessment of the condition of the floor-slab concrete were carried out. The state of preservation of the eastern and southern facades of the building was found to be satisfactory, while on the western side (with the courtyard) the facade is in a poor state of preservation. Tests were also conducted out on concrete samples taken from individual ceilings. The concrete cores were tested for compressive strength, water absorption, density, porosity, and carbonation depth. Corrosion processes including the degree of carbonization and the phase composition of the concrete were identified by X-ray diffraction. The results are indicative of the high quality of the concrete produced more than 100 years ago. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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21 pages, 6372 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Asphalt Mixtures Fatigue Life Considering Various Environmental Impacts

by Eryk Mączka and Piotr Mackiewicz

Materials 2023, 16(3), 966; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16030966 - 20 Jan 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1142

Abstract

The pavement structure during the colder seasons (winter) or in regions located above sea level is commonly affected and deteriorated by many environmental factors. Two prominent factors are water and frost (weather) or road salt (maintenance). According to the article’s literature review, there [...] Read more.

The pavement structure during the colder seasons (winter) or in regions located above sea level is commonly affected and deteriorated by many environmental factors. Two prominent factors are water and frost (weather) or road salt (maintenance). According to the article’s literature review, there are only a few studies related to water and frost or road salt impact on mineral asphalt mixes considering fatigue. Most of the tests were performed on mixes containing common road asphalt or only one binder content level was investigated. There are no articles that investigate this problem comprehensively including new asphalt, its content levels, or production technology. Based on the literature review, the main problem regarding degradation impact on mixtures fatigue life was stated. The investigation was performed using two proprietary experimental methods allowing approximates in situ conditions regarding environmental impacts. A dynamic four-point bending fatigue test was applied to evaluate degradation considering fatigue. The investigation was performed using four coarse-graded asphalt mixtures (asphalt concrete AC 22) which differed in binder type (35/50 WMA, 35/50, 25/55-60, and 25/55-80 HIMA), content level (4.24%, 4.03%, 3.82%), and production technology (hot and warm). Regarding the results obtained, the authors proposed a degradation ratio regarding fatigue life variability. Based on the obtained results and ratio used, it was found that both interactions caused a significant fatigue life decrease—in the worst case, over tens of percent. Furthermore, it was found that asphalt mixture resistance to environmental factors depends on binder type, its content level, air void content, and discussed impact. Moreover, asphalt mixtures’ susceptibility to degradation (fatigue) is extreme at lower binder content levels and accelerates due to air void content increase. In the article, it was also stated that the highest resistance was reached by a mixture with highly modified asphalt (25/55-80 HIMA). It was also found that the SBS polymer dosage increase in the asphalt matrix enhances asphalt mixture resistance to environmental impacts. The least resistant to the environmental degradation mixture was WMA (35/50 WMA). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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18 pages, 2635 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Cellulose Ether and Starch Ether on Hydration of Cement Processes and Fresh-State Properties of Cement Mortars

by Edyta Spychał and Piotr Stępień

Materials 2022, 15(24), 8764; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15248764 - 08 Dec 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1356

Abstract

The production of factory-made mortars is a multicomponent system. Viscosity-modifying admixtures (VMAs) are an inherent ingredient of these materials. The correct choice of the amount and type of these admixtures is important from the practical and scientific points of view. In this article, [...] Read more.

The production of factory-made mortars is a multicomponent system. Viscosity-modifying admixtures (VMAs) are an inherent ingredient of these materials. The correct choice of the amount and type of these admixtures is important from the practical and scientific points of view. In this article, the use of cellulose ether (CE) and starch ether (SE) in cement pastes and mortars is studied. This research focuses on the hydration process and fresh-state properties of mortars because this subject determines the correct choice of the amount and type of admixture used, and the results determine the application and properties of hardened mortars. Polymers were added in the range from 0.056% to 0.22% in relation to the dry ingredients of the mortar. The research showed that cellulose ether had the greatest impact on the consistency, air content, bulk density, and water retention of ordinary dry-mix mortars. On the other hand, starch ether affected the hydration process, delaying the setting and hardening processes much more than cellulose ether. The action of these admixtures rose with the increase in the amount of polymer used in different ways (depending on the type of ether). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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22 pages, 5992 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Selected Shear Models Based on the Analysis of the Critical Shear Crack for Slender Concrete Beams without Shear Reinforcement

by Monika Kaszubska and Renata Kotynia

Materials 2022, 15(22), 8259; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15228259 - 21 Nov 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1232

Abstract

This paper is devoted to the shear of slender concrete beams flexurally reinforced with two types of reinforcement: steel and fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) without transversal reinforcement. The paper presents four theoretical models for calculating the shear capacity of the collected test database and [...] Read more.

This paper is devoted to the shear of slender concrete beams flexurally reinforced with two types of reinforcement: steel and fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) without transversal reinforcement. The paper presents four theoretical models for calculating the shear capacity of the collected test database and the authors’ own research program, which contained 29 single-span, simply supported T-section beams reinforced with steel and glass fiber-reinforcement polymer (GFRP) bars. The paper presents a comprehensive analysis of the test results and modeling of design shear capacity in accordance with the selected theoretical models. The generalized assessment of computational analysis confirmed compatibility of the predicted and experimental results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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22 pages, 3911 KiB

Open AccessArticle

External Confined Concrete Cylinders Behavior under Axial Compression Using CFRP Wrapping

by Abdelhamid Karouche, Kamel Hebbache, Cherif Belebchouche, Noureddine Lahbari, Oussama Kessal and Slawomir Czarnecki

Materials 2022, 15(22), 8232; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15228232 - 19 Nov 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1145

Abstract

Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) is a composite material used to mend and strengthen concrete structural elements in civil engineering. The prime aim of this experimental study is to investigate the comportment of confined concrete cylinders (CCC) under uniaxial loads by altering the concrete strength, [...] Read more.

Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) is a composite material used to mend and strengthen concrete structural elements in civil engineering. The prime aim of this experimental study is to investigate the comportment of confined concrete cylinders (CCC) under uniaxial loads by altering the concrete strength, the CFRP angle orientation, and the volumetric ratio, following the externally bonded reinforcement technique (EBR). We present the results of the confinement effect and failure mechanisms issue of more than 150 specimens of CFRP confined concrete cylinders that have been undertaken and in which several parameters were altered. Totally and partially confined concrete cylinders were tested for failure under axial compressive loads and indirect tensile tests. Four different ratios of water/cement (0.33, 0.36, 0.401, and 0.522) were investigated. In addition, three sand–resin ratios were prepared to improve the mechanical properties and the adhesion of the CFRP and the concrete. The obtained results revealed a clear improvement in the compressive strength of the specimens made with low strength concrete (from 38% to 66%) compared to those made of high strength concrete (from 11% to 31%), where the improvements are relatively low. Furthermore, the transversally confined concrete cylinders presented significant gains in strength over those confined longitudinally. Lastly, adding sand to the resin increases the compressive strength of confined concrete cylinders (1.19% to 54.62%) and reduces the cost of the resin used for fixing CFRP materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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16 pages, 8958 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparative Study on Hygric Properties and Compressive Strength of Ceramic Bricks

by Piotr Stępień, Edyta Spychał and Karol Skowera

Materials 2022, 15(21), 7820; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15217820 - 05 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1351

Abstract

This article analyzes the results of capillary rise, compressive strength and water absorption tests on solid ceramic bricks from existing structures and demolition materials taken from 11 different structures. In addition (for more extensive interpretation and evaluation of porosity), tests were performed for [...] Read more.

This article analyzes the results of capillary rise, compressive strength and water absorption tests on solid ceramic bricks from existing structures and demolition materials taken from 11 different structures. In addition (for more extensive interpretation and evaluation of porosity), tests were performed for the selected series of bricks using a mercury porosimeter (MIP) and a micro computed tomography (micro-CT). Contemporary bricks (2 series) were also evaluated for comparison purposes. The conducted tests indicate that bricks obtained from different sources are characterized by “individual” relation of compressive strength and porosity, and “individual” relation of water absorption coefficient and porosity. In addition, on the basis of the results obtained in the study, compared with the literature data, it can be deduced that ceramic bricks with a water absorption coefficient of less than 50 g/m²s^0.5 are characterized by a compressive strength of more than 80 MPa. As the research shows, the properties of bricks even from a single building can differ one from another, which can result in varying durability even within a single building. When choosing a material during the renovation or restoration of facilities, it is important to perform tests on the physical and mechanical properties of the original material, which will be reused. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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11 pages, 1298 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of an Adsorption Process on Selected Materials, Including Waste, as a Barrier to the Pesticide Penetration into the Environment

by Jacek Piekarski, Katarzyna Ignatowicz and Tomasz Dąbrowski

Materials 2022, 15(13), 4680; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15134680 - 04 Jul 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1201

Abstract

The article presents research on using the adsorption process of aldrin (a chloro-organic pesticide that most often occurs in the environment near expired pesticide burials). The research used three sorbents: two activated carbons and compost from sewage sludge as a low-cost sorbent. Obtained [...] Read more.

The article presents research on using the adsorption process of aldrin (a chloro-organic pesticide that most often occurs in the environment near expired pesticide burials). The research used three sorbents: two activated carbons and compost from sewage sludge as a low-cost sorbent. Obtained adsorption isotherms belong to the L group according to the Giles classification. The test results and their analysis confirm that the IZO application facilitates the analysis of the adsorption process. The study results also confirm that compost can be a cost-effective alternative to commercial activated carbons to build barriers protecting the environment against existing leaking expired pesticide burials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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16 pages, 5074 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Basalt Aggregates and Mineral Admixtures on the Mechanical Properties of Concrete Exposed to Sulphate Attacks

by Abdulhalim Karasin, Marijana Hadzima-Nyarko, Ercan Işık, Murat Doğruyol, Ibrahim Baran Karasin and Sławomir Czarnecki

Materials 2022, 15(4), 1581; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041581 - 20 Feb 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 1972

Abstract

In this study, basalt, which is common around Diyarbakır province (Turkey), is used as concrete aggregate, waste materials as mineral additives and Portland cement as binding material to prepare concrete mixes. This paper aims to determine the proper admixture levels and usability of [...] Read more.

In this study, basalt, which is common around Diyarbakır province (Turkey), is used as concrete aggregate, waste materials as mineral additives and Portland cement as binding material to prepare concrete mixes. This paper aims to determine the proper admixture levels and usability of Diyarbakır basalt in concrete mixtures based on mechanical, physical and chemical tests. Thus, in order to determine the strength and durability performance of concrete mixtures with Diyarbakır basalt as aggregate, 72 sample cubes of 150 mm were prepared in three groups: mineral-free admixture (MFA), 10% of cement amount substituted for silica fume (SFS) and 20% for fly ash (FAS) as waste material. The samples were exposed to water curing and 100g/L sulphate solution to determine the loss in weight of the concrete cubes and compressive strength was examined at the end of 7, 28 and 360 days of the specimens. Analysis of the microstructure and cracks that influence durability, were also performed to determine effects of sulphate attacks alkali-silica reactions on the specimens using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). A loss in weight of the concrete cubes and compressive strength was distinctly evident at the end of 56 and 90 days in both acids. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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15 pages, 8647 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Design of Cement Mortar with Low Capillary Suction: Understanding the Effect of Fine Aggregate and Sodium Silicate

by Natalia Szemiot and Łukasz Sadowski

Materials 2022, 15(4), 1517; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041517 - 17 Feb 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1584

Abstract

The article presents the results of research that was carried out in order to analyze the capillary suction of cement mortar. Capillary suction is a common process that occurs when porous material is in free contact with moisture. The result of high capillary [...] Read more.

The article presents the results of research that was carried out in order to analyze the capillary suction of cement mortar. Capillary suction is a common process that occurs when porous material is in free contact with moisture. The result of high capillary suction may be excessive moisture in buildings, and it is therefore important to limit the causes of such moisture. The main aim of the presented research is to show the influence of sodium silicate (in various proportions), as well as the quantity of aggregate, on capillary suction. Three different types of cement mortar and one type of fine aggregates were analyzed in the research. At the beginning, the capillary suction of the aggregates was analyzed. Afterwards, nine cement mortar bars were made, which were then used to examine the capillary suction. As a result of this study, it was proved that M15 cement mortar with basalt fine aggregate and a higher proportion of sodium silicate was the mortar with the lowest capillary suction. It was found that M15 cement mortar with basalt fine aggregate and a higher proportion of sodium silicate had 39 mm of capillary suction after 120 h of being immersed in water. M5 cement mortar without sodium silicate had the highest index of capillary suction, which shows that adding sodium silicate to cement mortar can significantly reduce capillary suction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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20 pages, 14737 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Computational Modelling of VIG Plates Using FEM: Static and Dynamic Analysis

by Izabela Kowalczyk, Damian Kozanecki, Sylwia Krasoń and Martyna Rabenda

Materials 2022, 15(4), 1467; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041467 - 16 Feb 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1617

Abstract

Vacuum insulated glass (VIG) panels are becoming more and more popular due to their good thermal performance. Little information about the mechanical or strength parameters, which are crucial for the durability of a window, might be found in the published papers. The purpose [...] Read more.

Vacuum insulated glass (VIG) panels are becoming more and more popular due to their good thermal performance. Little information about the mechanical or strength parameters, which are crucial for the durability of a window, might be found in the published papers. The purpose of this work was to analyse the impact of different parameters on VIG panels’ mechanical properties. Parameter diversity refers to both geometrical and material characteristics. Static and dynamic analyses using the finite element method (ABAQUS program) were conducted. In addition, 101 various numerical models, created with the use of Python language, were tested. The changes of geometrical parameters were made with constant material parameters and the reverse. It has been concluded that pillars’ material and geometrical properties are crucial considering not only the static response of the VIG plates, but also the dynamic one. Moreover, it was proven that getting rid of the first row of pillars near every edge seal led to an increase in deflection of the glass panes. Additionally, considering results for dynamic response associated with out-of-phase vibrations, spacing between support pillars should be large enough in order to avoid possible damage to the glass pane due to rapidly decreasing distance between them. Further research opportunities have been described. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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18 pages, 6003 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Thermal Properties of a Prototype Insulation with a Gyroid Structure—Optimization of the Structure of a Cellular Composite Made Using SLS Printing Technology

by Beata Anwajler

Materials 2022, 15(4), 1352; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041352 - 12 Feb 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2233

Abstract

This paper focuses on the search for novel insulating structures, and the generation of them by means of a state-of-the-art manufacturing method—3D printing. Bionic structures, which are successfully used in many branches of technology, were chosen as the source of inspiration for the [...] Read more.

This paper focuses on the search for novel insulating structures, and the generation of them by means of a state-of-the-art manufacturing method—3D printing. Bionic structures, which are successfully used in many branches of technology, were chosen as the source of inspiration for the research. The paper presents a design of spatial structures with a gyroid infill (e.g., TPMS), the shape of which reflects the bionic structure of the inside of a bone. For SLS printed single- and multi-layered structures, the design value of the thermal conductivity coefficient was determined through measurements and calculations. A statistical analysis was carried out to determine the effect of the direction of heat flow, as well as the internal structure and layering of the prototype materials, on the values of the thermal conductivity coefficient and the thermal resistance coefficient. On the basis of the multicriteria analysis, the composite’s optimal composition according to the adopted optimization criteria was determined. The lowest possible thermal conductivity of the insulation was equal to 0.033 W/(m·K). The highest possible thermal resistance was equal to 0.606 m²·K/W. Thermal insulation made of the prototype insulating partitions with a gyroidal structure is characterized by good insulating parameters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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29 pages, 8898 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Materials and Technology Selection for Construction Projects Supported with the Use of Artificial Intelligence

by Jerzy Rosłon

Materials 2022, 15(4), 1282; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041282 - 09 Feb 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1832

Abstract

The choice of material solutions and the appropriate technology for the execution of works have a significant impact on the success of construction projects. The earlier in the investment cycle of a project, the greater the possibility of improving the project’s success indicators. [...] Read more.

The choice of material solutions and the appropriate technology for the execution of works have a significant impact on the success of construction projects. The earlier in the investment cycle of a project, the greater the possibility of improving the project’s success indicators. The currently used planning methods assume late integration of schedules with material and technological solutions. This limits the possibility of optimizing construction projects. The author proposed a new approach. The new method is based on the value engineering principles. The article presents a computational model supported by a case study—construction of an office building. Thanks to the use of artificial intelligence and metaheuristic algorithms, the economic results of construction projects have improved. This new method can help construction managers select materials and technologies in a way that will improve project parameters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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31 pages, 12680 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Procedure for the Determination of the Buckling Resistance of Steel Spherical Shells according to EC 1993-1-6

by Paweł Błażejewski

Materials 2022, 15(1), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15010025 - 21 Dec 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2062

Abstract

This paper presents the process of developing a new procedure for estimating the buckling capacity of spherical shells. This procedure is based entirely on the assumptions included in the standard mentioned, EN-1993-1-6 and also becomes a complement of EDR5th by unifying provisions included [...] Read more.

This paper presents the process of developing a new procedure for estimating the buckling capacity of spherical shells. This procedure is based entirely on the assumptions included in the standard mentioned, EN-1993-1-6 and also becomes a complement of EDR5th by unifying provisions included in them. This procedure is characterized by clarity and its algorithm is characterized by a low degree of complexity. While developing the procedure, no attempt was made to change the main postulates accompanying the dimensions of the spherical shells. The result is a simple engineering approach to the difficult problem of determining the buckling capacity of a spherical shell. In spite of the simple calculation algorithm for estimating the buckling capacity of spherical shells, the results obtained reflect extremely accurately the behavior of real spherical shells, regardless of their geometry and the material used to manufacture them. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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19 pages, 3518 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Water-Induced Degradation of Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)-Coated Woven Fabrics Mechanical Properties

by Andrzej Ambroziak and Paweł Kłosowski

Materials 2022, 15(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15010001 - 21 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2728

Abstract

The impact of water-induced degradation on the mechanical properties of the chosen two PTFE-coated, glass threads woven fabrics is investigated in this paper. The paper begins with a survey of literature concerning the investigation and determination of coated woven fabric properties. The authors [...] Read more.

The impact of water-induced degradation on the mechanical properties of the chosen two PTFE-coated, glass threads woven fabrics is investigated in this paper. The paper begins with a survey of literature concerning the investigation and determination of coated woven fabric properties. The authors carried out the uniaxial tensile tests with an application of flat and curved grips to establish the proper values of the ultimate tensile strength and the longitudinal stiffness of groups of specimens treated with different moisture conditions. Despite the water resistance of the main materials used for fabrics manufacturing, the change of the mechanical properties caused by the influence of water immersion has been noticed. The reduction in the tensile strength resulting under waterlogged is observed in the range from 5% to 16% depending on the type of investigated coated woven fabric and direction of weft or warp. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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14 pages, 2751 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hygric Properties of Machine-Made, Historic Clay Bricks from North-Eastern Poland (Former East Prussia): Characterization and Specification for Replacement Materials

by Maria Tunkiewicz, Joanna Misiewicz, Pawel Sikora and Sang-Yeop Chung

Materials 2021, 14(21), 6706; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216706 - 07 Nov 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2111

Abstract

This paper deals with the hygric characterization of early 20th century machine-made clay bricks, representative of great number of historical buildings in north-eastern Poland. Heritage buildings have a high potential for adaptive reuse, which is strictly connected with an urge for knowledge about [...] Read more.

This paper deals with the hygric characterization of early 20th century machine-made clay bricks, representative of great number of historical buildings in north-eastern Poland. Heritage buildings have a high potential for adaptive reuse, which is strictly connected with an urge for knowledge about the properties of these existing building envelopes. To better understand the hygric behavior of historic buildings, various experimental laboratory tests, including density, water absorption, compressive strength and freeze-thaw resistance, were conducted. In order to assess the microstructural characteristics of the tested bricks, mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) and X-ray micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) tests were performed. These tests were conducted on clay bricks from historic buildings, as well as on those that are currently being produced, in order to identify the relationship between the materials used in the past and the replacements produced presently. This paper addresses the lack of systematic application of existing standards for evaluating the state of the conservation of historic bricks and for establishing the specifications for replacement bricks. The results of conducted study and further research will be the basis for creating a historic materials database. It would be a useful tool for selecting bricks that correspond with the historically used materials and help to maintain homogenous structure of the restored buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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19 pages, 6809 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Flexural Behaviour and Internal Forces Redistribution in LWAC Double-Span Beams

by Ewelina Kołodziejczyk and Tomasz Waśniewski

Materials 2021, 14(19), 5614; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14195614 - 27 Sep 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1374

Abstract

This research study aimed to investigate the effect of the lightweight aggregate concrete and steel reinforcement interaction on the behaviour of continuous beams compared to the normal concrete of the same strength. This paper presents six full-scale, double-span beams with a rectangular cross-section [...] Read more.

This research study aimed to investigate the effect of the lightweight aggregate concrete and steel reinforcement interaction on the behaviour of continuous beams compared to the normal concrete of the same strength. This paper presents six full-scale, double-span beams with a rectangular cross-section made of both lightweight and normal concrete. The study confirmed that beams made of lightweight aggregate concrete achieve comparable flexural capacities to those made of NWC but their deformability and ductility are lower. Although the redistribution of internal forces depends mainly on the longitudinal reinforcement ratio, the influence of ultimate compressive strains of concrete is also noticeable. The ultimate compressive strains in LWAC are generally lower than in NWC. The lower rotational capacity of LWAC results in smaller degrees of moment redistribution in beams made of this concrete compared to normal concrete beams. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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25 pages, 8509 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bond Behaviour of Near-Surface Mounted Strips in RC Beams—Experimental Investigation and Numerical Simulations

by Renata Kotynia, Hussien Abdel Baky and Kenneth W. Neale

Materials 2021, 14(16), 4362; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14164362 - 04 Aug 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1541

Abstract

This paper presents an investigation of the bond mechanism between carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminates, concrete and steel in the near-surface mounted (NSM) CFRP-strengthened reinforced concrete (RC) beam-bond tests. The experimental program consisting of thirty modified concrete beams flexurally strengthened with NSM [...] Read more.

This paper presents an investigation of the bond mechanism between carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminates, concrete and steel in the near-surface mounted (NSM) CFRP-strengthened reinforced concrete (RC) beam-bond tests. The experimental program consisting of thirty modified concrete beams flexurally strengthened with NSM CFRP strips was published in. The effects of five parameters and their interactions on the ultimate load carrying capacities and the associated bond mechanisms of the beams are investigated in this paper with consideration of the following investigated parameters: beam span, beam depth, longitudinal tensile steel reinforcement ratio, the bond length of the CFRP strips and compressive concrete strength. The longitudinal steel reinforcement was cut at the beam mid-span in four beams to investigate a better assessment of the influence of the steel reinforcement ratio on the bond behaviour of CFRP to concrete bond behaviour. The numerical analysis implemented in this paper is based on a nonlinear micromechanical finite element model (FEM) that was used for investigation of the flexural behaviour of NSM CFRP-strengthened members. The 3D model based on advanced CFRP to concrete bond responses was introduced to modelling of tested specimens. The FEM procedure presents the orthotropic behaviour of the CFRP strips and the bond response between the CFRP and concrete. Comparison of the experimental and numerical results revealed an excellent agreement that confirms the suitability of the proposed FE model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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20 pages, 4617 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of CFRP Sheets on the Load-Bearing Capacity of the Glued Laminated Timber Beams under Bending Test

by Klaudia Śliwa-Wieczorek, Krzysztof Adam Ostrowski, Justyna Jaskowska-Lemańska and Anna Karolak

Materials 2021, 14(14), 4019; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14144019 - 18 Jul 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2397

Abstract

Composite materials are increasingly used to strengthen existing structures or new load-bearing elements, also made of timber. In this paper, the effect of the number of layers of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) on the load-bearing capacity and stiffness of Glued Laminated Timber [...] Read more.

Composite materials are increasingly used to strengthen existing structures or new load-bearing elements, also made of timber. In this paper, the effect of the number of layers of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) on the load-bearing capacity and stiffness of Glued Laminated Timber beams was determined. Experimental research was performed on 32 elements—a series of eight unreinforced beams, and three series of eight reinforced beams: with one, three and five layers of laminate each. The beams with a cross-section of 38 mm × 80 mm and a length of 750 mm were subjected to the four-point bending test according to standard procedure. For each series, destructive force, deflection, mode of failure, and equivalent stiffness were determined. In addition, for the selected samples, X-ray computed tomography was performed before and after their destruction to define the quality of the interface between wood and composite. The results of the conducted tests and analyses showed that there was no clear relationship between the number of reinforcement layers and the load-bearing capacity of the beams and their stiffness. Unreinforced beams failed due to tension, while reinforced CFRP beams failed due to shear. Despite this, a higher energy of failure of composite-reinforced elements was demonstrated in relation to the reference beams. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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20 pages, 1341 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Simulation of Non-Uniformly Distributed Corrosion in Reinforced Concrete Cross-Section

by Magdalena German and Jerzy Pamin

Materials 2021, 14(14), 3975; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14143975 - 16 Jul 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1714

Abstract

Reinforced concrete structures can be strongly damaged by chloride corrosion of reinforcement. Rust accumulated around rebars involves a volumetric expansion, causing cracking of the surrounding concrete. To simulate the corrosion progress, the initiation phase of the corrosion process is first examined, taking into [...] Read more.

Reinforced concrete structures can be strongly damaged by chloride corrosion of reinforcement. Rust accumulated around rebars involves a volumetric expansion, causing cracking of the surrounding concrete. To simulate the corrosion progress, the initiation phase of the corrosion process is first examined, taking into account the phenomena of oxygen and chloride transport as well as the corrosion current flow. This makes it possible to estimate the mass of produced rust, whereby a corrosion level is defined. A combination of three numerical methods is used to solve the coupled problem. The example object of the research is a beam cross-section with four reinforcement bars. The proposed methodology allows one to predict evolving chloride concentration and time to reinforcement depassivation, depending on the reinforcement position and on the location of a point on the bar surface. Moreover, the dependence of the corrosion initiation time on the chloride diffusion coefficient, chloride threshold, and reinforcement cover thickness is examined. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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24 pages, 6498 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental and Numerical Studies of Gas Permeability through Orthogonal Networks for Isotropic Porous Material

by Grzegorz Wałowski

Materials 2021, 14(14), 3832; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14143832 - 08 Jul 2021

Viewed by 1595

Abstract

With regard to the problem of gas flow through isotropic porous deposits, the issues were considered in the category of description of gas movement mechanisms for structural models of the skeleton. As part of experimental tests of gas permeability through porous material in [...] Read more.

With regard to the problem of gas flow through isotropic porous deposits, the issues were considered in the category of description of gas movement mechanisms for structural models of the skeleton. As part of experimental tests of gas permeability through porous material in the form of polyamide, the numerical simulation method was used, using the k–ε turbulence model. The analysis of hydrodynamic phenomena occurring in the porous material made it possible to confront experimental research with numerical calculations. The analysis shows that, for a porous polyamide bed, there is a certain limit range of gas velocity (10⁻⁴–1) ms⁻¹ at which flow resistance is the lowest. On the other hand, the highest value of the flow resistance is gradually achieved in the range of gas velocity (1–10) ms⁻¹. This is due to the different structure of the isotropic polyamide material. The validation of the numerical model with experimental data indicates the validity of the adopted research methodology. It was found that the permeability characteristics of the tested porous material practically did not depend on the direction of gas flow. For porous polyamide, the permeability characteristic is non-linear, which, from the point of view of the measurements carried out, indicates the advantage of turbulent gas flow over its laminar movement. The novelty of the article is a proprietary method of measuring gas permeability for a cube-shaped sample made of a material constituting a sinter of spherical particles of equal dimensions. The method enables the determination of gas flow (in each flow direction) in microchannels forming an orthogonal network, characteristic of isotropic materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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22 pages, 9704 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Polyisobutylene and Silicone in Warm Edge Glazing Systems—Evaluation of Long-Term Performance

by Maciej Cwyl, Rafał Michalczyk and Stanisław Wierzbicki

Materials 2021, 14(13), 3594; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14133594 - 27 Jun 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2766

Abstract

This article describes the characteristics of one type of sealing system used in warm edge glazing units and analyses the possible causes of damage. Attention was focused on the performance of the dual seal, PIB/silicone system. This type of glazing is widely used [...] Read more.

This article describes the characteristics of one type of sealing system used in warm edge glazing units and analyses the possible causes of damage. Attention was focused on the performance of the dual seal, PIB/silicone system. This type of glazing is widely used for modern curtain walls and roofs of office buildings and shopping centres. Study was focused on PIB displacement defects, which affects both the appearance and thermal performance of the curtain wall system. Wide-ranging field surveys were conducted to examine the problems identified in some office buildings. The information gathered in this way was used to identify the critical areas and causes of seal displacement in the analysed insulating glass units (IGUs). Laboratory tests were conducted on PIB and silicone seals retrieved from the removed defective units. The properties of these materials were determined and used to evaluate the applied edge sealing system and build a representative numerical model. Due to the problems encountered in deriving accurate analytical formulas, finite element (FE) approximation was used as a problem solving tool. The generated FE model and strain analysis were the key parts to obtaining a true representation of the actual behaviour of IGUs subjected to various environmental loads, taking into account the influence of the air cavity. Results of computer simulations and laboratory tests were compared for model validation. The effect of changes in ambient pressure was examined, showing the development of tensile strains in the silicone and PIB, which can lead to debonding. The greatest principal strains occur at the silicone/butyl rubber interface and this location should be considered to be the most susceptible to failure. The observations are summarised in the final conclusions. Additionally, as field study showed, after ten years in service, the percentage of damaged units is considerable. More frequent IGUs inspection should cover both appearance and thermal imaging to detect unsealed panels. From the standpoint of both durability and appearance, dual silicone/PIB should be phased out in favour of modern seal systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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23 pages, 18967 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Self-Immobilizing Metals Binder for Construction Made of Activated Metallurgical Slag, Slag from Lignite Coal Combustion and Ash from Biomass Combustion

by Barbara Słomka-Słupik

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3101; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113101 - 05 Jun 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1826

Abstract

Research on the effective use of secondary products is gaining more and more importance in Poland due to the intensively implementing idea of the circular economy. The solution used in this work are one of many tests useful in construction. The subject of [...] Read more.

Research on the effective use of secondary products is gaining more and more importance in Poland due to the intensively implementing idea of the circular economy. The solution used in this work are one of many tests useful in construction. The subject of this work was therefore the formation and testing of a new ecological construction binder, in particular for mortars or prefabricated elements working in the environment with high humidity. The binder was made of alkaline activated ground granular blast furnace slag (AAS), fly ash from biomass combustion (BFA) and furnace slag from brown coal combustion (LFS). The mixture was modified by introducing the zeolite to check the degree of metals immobilization contained in the ingredients of the mixture. A series of three mixtures were prepared: without and with zeolite soaked in distilled water or calcium nitrate. The strength of binders in time in dry and wet curing were tested and compared with the microstructure. The maximum compressive strength values at the eighth week were about 30 MPa. The strength values after 4 weeks of dry and wet curing were also compared. It was shown that 28-day wet curing increased the bending strength of the beams more than twice, but slightly decreased the compressive strength. The microstructure of the mixture with the highest values of compressive strength was the densest and the one with the lowest values of compressive strength, the most loosened with the most differentiated topographically fracture. The impregnation of zeolite with calcium nitrate decreased the compressive strength of the binder significantly. The bending strength of samples curing in dry conditions decreased during hardening. The results of the metals leaching test showed that the mixtures were safe for the environment, and due to the impregnation of zeolite with calcium nitrate, the binding effect of copper and zinc in the first weeks was greater than in the other mixtures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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25 pages, 9433 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Analysis of Crack Width Development in Reinforced Concrete Beams

by Barbara Goszczyńska, Wiesław Trąmpczyński and Justyna Tworzewska

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3043; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113043 - 03 Jun 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3208

Abstract

The reliability and durability of reinforced concrete structures depend on the amount of concrete cracking. The risk associated with cracks generates a need for diagnostic methods for the evaluation of reinforced concrete structures. This paper presents the results of a study of 10 [...] Read more.

The reliability and durability of reinforced concrete structures depend on the amount of concrete cracking. The risk associated with cracks generates a need for diagnostic methods for the evaluation of reinforced concrete structures. This paper presents the results of a study of 10 single-span reinforced concrete beams to follow the process of crack formation and changes in their width. The beams were loaded to failure with two forces in a monotonic manner with unloading and in a cyclic manner. Continuous observation of the crack formation process was provided by the digital image correlation system. The simplified method for estimating the maximum crack width is proposed. The presented results confirmed the stochastic character of the process of crack formation and development. The maximum crack widths calculated on the basis of the proposed formula were on the safe side in relation to those calculated according to Eurocode 2. It was also confirmed that the distances between cracks do not depend on the loading manner. Hence the density function describing the distribution of distances between cracks can be used to assess the condition of reinforced concrete elements. The research has also shown the suitability of the DIC system (ARAMIS) for testing concrete elements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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24 pages, 1410 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Correlation between Defects and Technical Wear of Materials Used in Traditional Construction

by Jarosław Konior and Mariusz Rejment

Materials 2021, 14(10), 2482; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14102482 - 11 May 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1628

Abstract

The degree of technical wear of old buildings, which are made of basic materials (cement, concrete, steel, timber, plaster, brick) using traditional technology, is expressed by the size and intensity of damage to their elements. The topic of the research concerns old residential [...] Read more.

The degree of technical wear of old buildings, which are made of basic materials (cement, concrete, steel, timber, plaster, brick) using traditional technology, is expressed by the size and intensity of damage to their elements. The topic of the research concerns old residential buildings from the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, which are located in the downtown district of Wroclaw, Poland. The descriptive analysis and the analysis of the definitions of defects that occur in the elements of residential buildings, which were performed as random analyzes, do not allow defects to be considered as measurable variables at a level of visual investigation. The major drawback of the method that is used by experts when assessing the technical condition of civil engineering buildings is that it does not numerically express the magnitude (strength) of the defects. Therefore, an attempt was made to numerically express the relationship (if such a relationship exists) between the occurred defects of buildings and the extent of their technical wear process. When calculating the strength of this relationship, the method of determining the point biserial correlation coefficient for the measurable property and the dichotomous property was used. It was found that the direction of the relation is right-hand for all the tested building elements, but the strength of the correlation between the detected defects and technical wear shows a considerable span and depends on the conditions of the apartment house’s maintenance. As a rule, damage caused by water penetration and moisture penetration always shows correlations of at least moderate strength. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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24 pages, 26542 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Concrete Tank Failure as the Result of Implementing Wrong Boundary Conditions for Wall Support—Case Study

by Łukasz Drobiec, Jan Gierczak, Rajmund Ignatowicz, Piotr Kozioł and Tomasz Nowak

Materials 2021, 14(10), 2474; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14102474 - 11 May 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2523

Abstract

Damage to large reinforced concrete structures is rarely due to design errors. Sometimes, however, a small error can lead to major damage and costly repairs. The article describes the damage, the results of non-destructive and destructive tests, the results of numerical calculations, and [...] Read more.

Damage to large reinforced concrete structures is rarely due to design errors. Sometimes, however, a small error can lead to major damage and costly repairs. The article describes the damage, the results of non-destructive and destructive tests, the results of numerical calculations, and the method of repairing a reinforced concrete tank in a sewage treatment plant. The failure was caused by applying the wrong boundary conditions to the reinforced concrete wall support inside an existing biological reactor. During leak testing, one of the new walls cracked and was displaced, which resulted in the tank leaking. An inspection of wall damage and displacement was carried out on termination of the leak testing and while the tank was draining. The causes of the failure were determined based on the inventory information and numerical simulations. Both non-destructive tests of reinforcement and concrete and destructive tests of concrete were carried out. The concrete class of the foundation slab was determined based on a compression test of sample cores obtained from drilling. The aim of the non-destructive tests was to indicate the location and diameter of reinforcement in the damaged wall using electromagnetic and radar methods, as well as the location of internal defects using ultrasonic and radar methods. It was found out that the failure was a result of an incorrect determination of the anchoring length of the reinforcement. Based on the analysis, a plan to repair the damaged wall was formulated and then successfully implemented. In the article the authors proposed the IVD (identification-verification-design) scheme to make the design easier in similar cases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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14 pages, 8205 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Metallographic Testing of 19th Century Steel in an Operating Water Tower

by Eugeniusz Hotała, Rajmund Ignatowicz and Maciej B. Lachowicz

Materials 2021, 14(9), 2204; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14092204 - 25 Apr 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1930

Abstract

The world’s first steel structures were built towards the end of the 19th century. Some of them are still in use today, whereas others are maintained as precious technical heritage. In both cases, there may be a need to assess their technical condition [...] Read more.

The world’s first steel structures were built towards the end of the 19th century. Some of them are still in use today, whereas others are maintained as precious technical heritage. In both cases, there may be a need to assess their technical condition and carry out repairs and reinforcements, which requires an understanding of the properties of the steel used. The few studies that have been undertaken of such steel structures indicate that the properties depend on the history of use. This paper presents the results of metallographic tests of a steel tank in a water tower built in 1884 in Lower Silesia. The chemical composition was consistent with that of the puddled steel used in the 19th century. The carbon content showed significant segregation and ranged from 0.011% to 0.072% mass. As a consequence, a typical microstructure for low-carbon steels (ferritic) was observed, changing locally to ferritic-pearlitic. The tested steel contained a very high content of phosphorus and silicon. The microstructure with numerous slags favoured the formation of surface delamination caused by the corrosion processes. The degree of corrosion of the steel of the tank was also assessed, as well as the type of corrosion inside the tank. Corrosion was favoured by the oxygen concentration cell. The results of the research will be used to assess the potential for continuing tank use and the reinforcements that have been planned. The results presented will add to the somewhat limited research results available for steel dating back to the 19th century, which is still present in many building structures. Such a database is especially needed by those designing technical measures aimed at maintaining these historical structures in good technical condition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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Review

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30 pages, 6891 KiB

Open AccessReview

Comparison of Prestressing Methods with CFRP and SMA Materials in Flexurally Strengthened RC Members

by Janusz Rogowski and Renata Kotynia

Materials 2022, 15(3), 1231; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15031231 - 07 Feb 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2255

Abstract

Over the years, prestressing concrete has become a well-known technique to improve the ultimate and serviceability state of RC members. Besides steel reinforcement, relatively new materials such as carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP) or especially shape memory alloys (SMA) can be used to [...] Read more.

Over the years, prestressing concrete has become a well-known technique to improve the ultimate and serviceability state of RC members. Besides steel reinforcement, relatively new materials such as carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP) or especially shape memory alloys (SMA) can be used to active strengthening. The main scope of this paper is to compare various prestressing methods using carbon composites and memory steel alloys. A description of SMA, shape memory effect, its utilization for prestressing, and CFRP materials are presented in the paper. Moreover, current state-of-the-art developments in the field of both materials, considering prestressing systems and available anchorage, material behavior, creep and stress relaxation, durability issues, thermal compatibility with concrete, and fire behavior, are described. A general revision of previous studies based on flexural strengthening using both materials is conducted and the selected results of these studies are briefly presented. The behavior of RC beams after strengthening with mentioned techniques is compared and discussed. Selected on-site applications are described to confirm the feasibility and practicality of the strengthening systems. Finally, the main advantages and disadvantages of CFRP and SMA materials for prestressing concrete structures are summarized and further recommendations for the future research are listed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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18 pages, 2591 KiB

Open AccessReview

Internal Abiotic Components That Influence the Development of Biocorrosion on ETICS Plasters

by Monika Dybowska-Józefiak and Maria Wesołowska

Materials 2022, 15(1), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15010127 - 24 Dec 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2260

Abstract

Basic factors affecting the appearance of algae discoloration on the surface of the system are recognized effects of the external environment (external temperature and humidity, short- and long-term radiation, precipitation, wind and air pollution). Internal factors are often neglected by international technical documents [...] Read more.

Basic factors affecting the appearance of algae discoloration on the surface of the system are recognized effects of the external environment (external temperature and humidity, short- and long-term radiation, precipitation, wind and air pollution). Internal factors are often neglected by international technical documents on the evaluation of the effectiveness of resistance to biocorrosion of the External Thermal Insulation Composite System (ETICS). Based on literature data and in situ research, the basic internal factors responsible for the occurrence or intensification of the biocorrosion process were systematized. Internal factors were divided into two groups: (1) plaster properties and (2) solutions for material layouts and building details. The results of research on these factors indicate that they directly or indirectly influence the humidity condition of plaster and biocorrosion development is a consequence of this state. The opposite issue, the influence of biocorrosion on plaster properties, is analyzed only in patrial way. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Construction Materials and Processes in Poland)

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