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19 pages, 3092 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Rheological Properties of Natural Hydraulic Lime-Based Suspensions for Sustainable Construction and Heritage Conservation

by Ángel De La Rosa, Gonzalo Ruiz and Rodrigo Moreno

Materials 2024, 17(4), 825; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17040825 - 08 Feb 2024

Viewed by 528

Abstract

Natural hydraulic lime (NHL)-based binders play a crucial role in preserving cultural heritage structures, ensuring integrity and longevity. Beyond traditional uses, these binders exhibit potential for integration into both non-structural and structural components, being compatible with innovative manufacturing processes such as digital fabrication. [...] Read more.

Natural hydraulic lime (NHL)-based binders play a crucial role in preserving cultural heritage structures, ensuring integrity and longevity. Beyond traditional uses, these binders exhibit potential for integration into both non-structural and structural components, being compatible with innovative manufacturing processes such as digital fabrication. Meticulously designed grouts, with applicability in their fresh and hardened states, are essential for heritage stability. This study explores the relationships between mineral additions, chemical admixtures, and lime for grout formulations, aiming to advance our understanding and inform the optimization of materials for heritage restoration. Key questions include the influence of natural volcanic pozzolan (NVP) and metakaolin (MK) on rheology and the impact of varying ratios of superplasticizer on NHL-based grout’s rheological behavior. This systematic evaluation of rheological parameters aims to innovate mix designs, expanding NHL-based binders’ applicability in construction and science. Our hypotheses suggest that well-designed lime grout formulations, incorporating NVP and MK, can enhance rheological properties, addressing challenges in sustainable construction and heritage conservation. This research provides valuable insights for optimizing lime-based materials, fostering advancements in heritage restoration, and promoting wider NHL-based binder adoption in diverse construction applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Preparation and Properties of New Cementitious Materials)

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17 pages, 4852 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Shrinkage, Permeation and Freeze–Thaw Characteristics of Ambient Cured High Calcium-Based Alkali-Activated Engineered Composites

by Khandaker M. A. Hossain and Dhruv Sood

Materials 2023, 16(22), 7101; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16227101 - 09 Nov 2023

Viewed by 702

Abstract

Sustainable zero cement-based one-part ambient cured alkali-activated engineered composites (AAECs) are developed. The durability and microstructural characteristics of developed AAECs using 2% v/v polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers, silica sand, binary or ternary combinations of precursors (fly ash class C ‘FA-C’, fly [...] Read more.

Sustainable zero cement-based one-part ambient cured alkali-activated engineered composites (AAECs) are developed. The durability and microstructural characteristics of developed AAECs using 2% v/v polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers, silica sand, binary or ternary combinations of precursors (fly ash class C ‘FA-C’, fly ash class F ‘FA-F’ and ground granulated blast furnace slag ‘GGBFS’) and two types of powder form alkaline reagents (Type 1 and Type 2) are evaluated compared to conventional engineered cementitious composites (ECCs) and alkali-activated mortars (AAMs) without fiber. AAECs developed satisfactory compressive strength ranging from 34 MPa to 46 MPa. Expansion/shrinkage and mass change (loss/gain) behaviors are affected by binary/ternary combination of source materials, reagent types and curing regimes (water or ambient) for both AAMs and AAECs. The binary (FA-C + GGBFS) and reagent 2 (calcium hydroxide + sodium sulfate) composites demonstrated lower shrinkage due to formation of crystalline C-A-S-H/C-S-H binding phases than their ternary (FA-C + FA-F + GGBFS) and reagent 1 (calcium hydroxide + sodium metasilicate) counterparts which formed amorphous N-C-A-S-H/N-A-S-H phases. The matrix densification due to the formation of reaction products and fiber-induced micro-confinement leads to lower shrinkage and mass change of AAECs compared to their AAM counterparts. Composites exhibited lower or comparable secondary sorptivity indices compared to control ECC, indicating their superior permeation performance. All AAECs had a relative dynamic modulus of elasticity (RDME) greater than 90% at 300 cycles (comparable to control ECC), exhibiting satisfactory freeze–thaw resistance with reagent 2 mixes showing better performance compared to those with reagent 1. The production feasibility of strain hardening AAECs with powder form reagents having satisfactory mechanical and durability properties is confirmed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Preparation and Properties of New Cementitious Materials)

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18 pages, 7365 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of External Sulfate Attack on the Durability of Reinforced Mortars in the Presence of Calcined River Sediments

by Ali Benkabouche, Mouhamadou Amar, Mahfoud Benzerzour, Nor-Edine Abriak, Michèle T’kint and Mohamed Mouli

Materials 2023, 16(20), 6684; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16206684 - 13 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1158

Abstract

In France, the annual volume of dredged sediments is significantly increasing, which has become a real environmental problem. Nevertheless, these sediments can be used beneficially as supplementary cementing material. On the other hand, external sulfate attack is one of the most aggressive causes [...] Read more.

In France, the annual volume of dredged sediments is significantly increasing, which has become a real environmental problem. Nevertheless, these sediments can be used beneficially as supplementary cementing material. On the other hand, external sulfate attack is one of the most aggressive causes of deterioration that affects the durability of concrete structures. This study focused on the valorization of river-dredged sediments from Noyelles-Sous-Lens (Hauts-de-France) as a mineral addition in substitution of Portland cement, and it studied their impacts on the mechanical behavior and durability of reinforced mortars. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis indicated the presence of clay minerals in the raw sediment. In order to activate this clay fraction, flash calcination was applied at a temperature of 750 °C. In addition, four mixed mortars were formulated by mixing a Portland cement (CEM I 52.5 N) and the calcined sediments as a partial substitute for cement with proportions of 0%, 15%, 20%, and 30%, then stored in water tanks at room temperature (20 ± 2 °C) for 90 days in order to immerse them in a tank containing a 5% MgSO₄ solution and to track the evolution of their corrosion potential as well as their mass variations every 20 days for a period of 360 days. The following additional tests were carried out on these mortars: tests of resistance to compression and flexion and to porosity by mercury intrusion. The results obtained from the majority of these tests showed that the mortar containing 15% calcined sediments is as effective and durable as the reference mortar itself. The main conclusion we can draw from these results is that the presence of these calcined sediments improves the overall behavior of the mortar. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Preparation and Properties of New Cementitious Materials)

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27 pages, 12427 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Strength and Fracture Characteristics of One-Part Strain-Hardening Green Alkali-Activated Engineered Composites

by Khandaker M. Anwar Hossain and Dhruv Sood

Materials 2023, 16(14), 5077; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16145077 - 18 Jul 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 908

Abstract

Alkali-activated engineered composites (AAECs) are cement-free composites developed using alkali activation technology, which exhibit strain hardening and multiple micro-cracking like conventional engineered cementitious composites (ECCs). Such AAECs are developed in this study by incorporating 2% v/v polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers into [...] Read more.

Alkali-activated engineered composites (AAECs) are cement-free composites developed using alkali activation technology, which exhibit strain hardening and multiple micro-cracking like conventional engineered cementitious composites (ECCs). Such AAECs are developed in this study by incorporating 2% v/v polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers into alkali-activated mortars (AAMs) produced using binary/ternary combinations of fly ash class C (FA-C), fly ash class F (FA-F), and ground-granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) with powder-form alkaline reagents and silica sand through a one-part mixing method under ambient curing conditions. The mechanical and microstructural characteristics of eight AAECs are investigated to characterize their strain-hardening performance based on existing (stress and energy indices) and newly developed tensile/flexural ductility indices. The binary (FA-C + GGBFS) AAECs obtained higher compressive strengths (between 48 MPa and 52 MPa) and ultrasonic pulse velocities (between 3358 m/s and 3947 m/s) than their ternary (FA-C + FA-F + GGBFS) counterparts. The ternary AAECs obtained a higher fracture energy than their binary counterparts. The AAECs incorporating reagent 2 (Ca(OH)₂: Na₂SO₄ = 2.5:1) obtained a greater fracture energy and compressive strengths than their counterparts with reagent 1 (Ca(OH)₂: Na₂SiO₃.5H₂O = 1:2.5), due to additional C-S-H gel formation, which increased their energy absorption for crack propagation through superior multiple-cracking behavior. A lower fracture and crack-tip toughness facilitated the development of enhanced flexural strength characteristics with higher flexural strengths (ranging from 5.3 MPa to 11.3 MPa) and a higher energy ductility of the binary AAMs compared to their ternary counterparts. The tensile stress relaxation process was relatively gradual in the binary AAECs, owing to the formation of a more uniform combination of reaction products (C-S-H/C-A-S-H) rather than a blend of amorphous (N-C-A-S-H/N-A-S-H) and crystalline (C-A-S-H/C-S-H) binding phases in the case of the ternary AAECs. All the AAECs demonstrated tensile strain-hardening characteristics at 28 days, with significant improvements from 28% to 100% in the maximum bridging stresses for mixes incorporating 40% to 45% GGBFS at 365 days. This study confirmed the viability of producing green cement-free strain-hardening alkali-activated composites with powder-form reagents, with satisfactory mechanical characteristics under ambient conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Preparation and Properties of New Cementitious Materials)

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11 pages, 3139 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Long Term Property of Soft Soil Solidified with Industrial Waste Residue and Regenerated Fine Aggregate

by Anhui Wang, Wanying Dong, Qiwei Zhan and Juanlan Zhou

Materials 2023, 16(6), 2447; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16062447 - 19 Mar 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1178

Abstract

The long-term properties of solidified soft soil, including an immersion test, the dry–wet cycle and the freeze–thaw cycle, were systematically studied. Firstly, the immersion stability of solidified soft soil was confirmed. The appearance of soft soil solidified by a solidified agent and raw [...] Read more.

The long-term properties of solidified soft soil, including an immersion test, the dry–wet cycle and the freeze–thaw cycle, were systematically studied. Firstly, the immersion stability of solidified soft soil was confirmed. The appearance of soft soil solidified by a solidified agent and raw fine aggregate did not change significantly, and it was still intact without damage when the soaking time increased up to 28 d. Secondly, the mass and compressive strength loss of solidified soft soil were determined. When the number of dry–wet cycles was one, three, five and seven, the accumulated-mass loss rate was 1.4%, 3.0%, 4.5% and 6.0%, respectively, and the compressive-strength loss rate was −10.3%, 13.9%, 41.2% and 53.6%, respectively. Compared with solidified soft soil under standard curing environments, solidified soft soil after seven dry–wet cycles showed small cracks, and the structural compactness began to decline. Finally, the influence of the freeze–thaw cycle on the mass, compressive strength and microstructure of solidified soft soil was confirmed. When the number of freeze–thaw cycles was 5, 10, 15 and 20, the accumulated-mass loss rate was 12.6%, 16.7%, 17.9% and 18.8%, respectively. The microstructure of the solidified soft soil was damaged, and the increase in porosity was the main reason for its strength reduction or even failure. Nevertheless, soft soil with a solidified agent and recycled fine aggregate had no obvious damage to the microstructure, and the freeze–thaw resistance was relatively superior. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Preparation and Properties of New Cementitious Materials)

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16 pages, 5247 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation and Hydration Mechanisms of Low Carbon Ferrochrome Slag-Granulated Blast Furnace Slag Composite Cementitious Materials

by Chao Ren, Keqing Li, Yonghua Wang, Yanfang Li, Jiannan Tong and Jingyao Cai

Materials 2023, 16(6), 2385; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16062385 - 16 Mar 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1395

Abstract

Low carbon ferrochrome slag (LCFS) is the metallurgical waste slag from the carbon ferrochrome alloy smelting process. Compared with high carbon ferrochrome slag, LCFS has great potential as cementitious material; the chemical compositions of the two types of slag are quite different. In [...] Read more.

Low carbon ferrochrome slag (LCFS) is the metallurgical waste slag from the carbon ferrochrome alloy smelting process. Compared with high carbon ferrochrome slag, LCFS has great potential as cementitious material; the chemical compositions of the two types of slag are quite different. In this research, composite cementitious materials are prepared which use low carbon ferrochrome slag and granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) as the main raw material. Steel slag mud (SSM) and flue gas desulfurization gypsum (FGDG) are used as the activator. In order to find the variety rule of compressive strength on the composite cementitious materials, a three-factor three-level Box-Behnken design is used to discuss the following independent variables: LCFS content, GBFS content, and water-binder ratio. Moreover, the hydration characteristics of the LCFS-GBFS composite cementitious materials is studied in this paper in terms of hydration product, micromorphology, and hydration degree, based on multi-technical microstructural characterizations. The results show that the compressive strength of the LCFS-GBFS composite cementitious materials is significantly affected by single factors and the interaction of two factors. The mechanical property of the mortar samples at 3, 7, and 28 days are 26.6, 35.3, and 42.7 MPa, respectively, when the LCFS-GBFS-SSM-FGDG ratio is 3:5:1:1 and the water-binder ratio is 0.3. The hydration products of LCFS-GBFS composite cementitious materials are mainly amorphous gels (C-S-H gel), ettringite, and Ca(OH)₂. With the increase of LCFS content, more hydration products are generated, and the microstructure of the cementitious system becomes more compact, which contributes to the compressive strength. The results of this research can provide a preliminary theoretical foundation for the development of LCFS-GBFS composite cementitious materials and promote the feasibility of its application in the construction industry. Deep hydration mechanism analysis and engineering applications should be studied in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Preparation and Properties of New Cementitious Materials)

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17 pages, 5712 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydration Characteristics and Early Strength Evolution of Classified Fine Tailings Cemented Backfill

by Yunpeng Kou, Yuchao Deng, Yuye Tan, Chongchong Han and Weidong Song

Materials 2023, 16(3), 963; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16030963 - 20 Jan 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1283

Abstract

To explore the hydration characteristics and early strength evolution of classified fine tailings cemented backfill (CFTCB), a nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analysis and a volume resistivity test were performed on classified fine tailings filling slurry (CFTFS). The early hydration products of CFTCB were [...] Read more.

To explore the hydration characteristics and early strength evolution of classified fine tailings cemented backfill (CFTCB), a nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analysis and a volume resistivity test were performed on classified fine tailings filling slurry (CFTFS). The early hydration products of CFTCB were studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) phase analysis. Uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) test was carried out, and the microscopic characteristics and strength rules of the hydration reaction of CFTCB were analyzed. Based on the experiment, we found the law of water content change and porosity evolution. The early hydration reaction can be divided into the dissolution, setting, and hardening stages. The volume resistivity test results show that the volume resistance of filling slurry increases slowly at first then decreases, and finally increases rapidly. The variation trend of volume resistivity is related to the degree of hydration reaction. When combined with the hydration characteristics of backfill materials, the hydration reaction rate determines the growth rate of early strength of backfill, and the formation of hydration products is the reason for the early strength increase in backfill. The research conclusion has an important theoretical guiding value and engineering significance in mine filling production organization and filling ratio parameter optimization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Preparation and Properties of New Cementitious Materials)

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16 pages, 3768 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of Base Oil Effects on Aged Asphalt Binders Considering Bicycle Road

by Jihyeon Yun, Hyun Joon Choi, Il-Ho Na and Hyun Hwan Kim

Materials 2023, 16(2), 624; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16020624 - 09 Jan 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 958

Abstract

Demand for various bicycles and sharing systems has constantly been growing worldwide as they improve the quality of life and promote eco-friendly transportation. Accordingly, it is inevitable that bicycle roads should be expanded. As bicycle roads have a relatively lower load applied than [...] Read more.

Demand for various bicycles and sharing systems has constantly been growing worldwide as they improve the quality of life and promote eco-friendly transportation. Accordingly, it is inevitable that bicycle roads should be expanded. As bicycle roads have a relatively lower load applied than automobile roads, adopting a design method that uses a high reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) content can be beneficial. However, much uncertainty still exists about the relation between the mixing method and application in field sites, without appropriately considering the quality control of the rejuvenator. Therefore, this study aims to demonstrate the effect of base oil as a rejuvenator on aged binders, considering the use of a high RAP content for bicycle roads. To prepare the aged binder, a rolling thin-film oven (RTFO) and pressure aging vessel (PAV) were used to imitate the life cycle of asphalt pavement from production to service life, and then three contents of aged binder (0%, 50%, and 100%) were added and mixed with fresh PG 64-22 base binder. Finally, each type of prepared aged asphalt binder was blended with three different base oil contents (0%, 5%, and 10%). The results indicated that (1) the addition of base oil effectively decreased the viscosity of aged binders, (2) aged binders containing base oil showed less G*/sin δ compared to originally aged binders, and (3) the application of base oil improves the cracking properties of the aged binder by decreasing stiffness. In conclusion, the most striking observation from the data analysis from the Superpave test and statistical results was the effect of reducing the asphaltene portion based on the use of base oil in the aged binder. Therefore, using base oil in RAP can enable the application of a high RAP content to the bicycle road. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Preparation and Properties of New Cementitious Materials)

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14 pages, 2385 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Green Pervious Concrete Containing Diatomaceous Earth as Supplementary Cementitous Materials for Pavement Applications

by Alexander Gladwin Alex, Prakash Arul Jose, Mohammad Saberian and Jie Li

Materials 2023, 16(1), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16010048 - 21 Dec 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1586

Abstract

Portland cement porous concrete (PCPC) has received immense interest recently due to its environmental aids. Its porous structure helps to reduce the water runoff amount while improving the recharge of groundwater. Earlier studies have concentrated on illustrating and knowing the functional as well [...] Read more.

Portland cement porous concrete (PCPC) has received immense interest recently due to its environmental aids. Its porous structure helps to reduce the water runoff amount while improving the recharge of groundwater. Earlier studies have concentrated on illustrating and knowing the functional as well as structural properties of PCPC. However, very few studies are available on PCPC in combination with natural silica sources as supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). Most SCMs are by-products of industrial manufacturing processes and cause some environmental concerns, but with their pozzolanic effect, they could be utilized as partial substitute materials for ordinary Portland cement (OPC) to enhance the strength as well as durability performance. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effects of diatomaceous earth (DE) as a supplementary cementitious material for partial substitution of OPC for Portland cement porous concrete application. Compression strength, split tensile strength, and flexural strength tests were performed to determine the effect of partial replacement. To investigate the impact of test variables, basic tests, including void content and water permeability, were also performed. Compared to the control concrete, the results show that a 15% replacement of cement with DE significantly increased the compressive strength (by 53%) while also providing adequate porosity and better water permeability. Statistical analysis (ANOVA) and regression analysis showed that there is a significant (p < 0.05) growth within the physical characteristics of concrete upon the replacement of cement by 15% DE. Collectively, the replacement of cement with DE could not only improve the concrete strength but also reduce the consumption of cement, thereby lessening the cost of construction as well as indirectly reducing the carbon footprint. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Preparation and Properties of New Cementitious Materials)

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14 pages, 4312 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Compressive and Shear Behavior of Masonry Reinforced with Ultra-Rapid-Hardening Fiber-Reinforced Mortar (URH-FRM)

by Joo Ha Lee

Materials 2022, 15(24), 8825; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15248825 - 10 Dec 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 758

Abstract

Masonry structures are very vulnerable to lateral forces such as earthquakes. In particular, for existing masonry buildings that have not been designed for earthquake resistance, appropriate seismic resistance retrofit is required. In this study, ultra-rapid-hardening fiber-reinforced mortar (URH-FRM), which has a high ductility, [...] Read more.

Masonry structures are very vulnerable to lateral forces such as earthquakes. In particular, for existing masonry buildings that have not been designed for earthquake resistance, appropriate seismic resistance retrofit is required. In this study, ultra-rapid-hardening fiber-reinforced mortar (URH-FRM), which has a high ductility, with an ultimate tensile strain of about 0.07, and is an economical and easy-to-construct seismic reinforcing material, was developed. Compressive strength and initial shear strength tests were performed on masonry prisms reinforced with the URH-FRM. As an experimental variable, the reinforcement thickness of the URH-FRM was varied from 10 to 30 mm and the structural performance was compared with specimens reinforced with general mortar and specimens without reinforcement. As a result, the beneficial effect of URH-FRM on the in-plane initial shear strength of horizontal bed joints in masonry prisms was confirmed. In addition, the thicker the URH-FRM reinforcement, the clearer the improvement in ductility through strain hardening. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Preparation and Properties of New Cementitious Materials)

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14 pages, 5155 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Different Fiber Reinforcement Effects on Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Long-Term Deflection in Three-Point Bending and Microstructure

by Rihards Gailitis, Leonids Pakrastins, Andina Sprince, Liga Radina, Gita Sakale and Krzysztof Miernik

Materials 2022, 15(23), 8512; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15238512 - 29 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1061

Abstract

This study investigated the effect of a low amount of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and steel fiber reinforcement on fly ash-based geopolymer composite long-term deflection and its microstructure. For testing purposes, specimens with different amounts and types of fiber reinforcement as well as plain [...] Read more.

This study investigated the effect of a low amount of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and steel fiber reinforcement on fly ash-based geopolymer composite long-term deflection and its microstructure. For testing purposes, specimens with different amounts and types of fiber reinforcement as well as plain (reference) were prepared. The long-term deflection test was performed by loading specimens with 40% of the ultimate flexural strength. A microstructure analysis was performed using polished section specimens, and images were acquired at 25-times magnification on a scanning electron microscope. The results of the flexural strength test show that all geopolymer composites with fiber reinforcement have lower flexural strength than plain geopolymer composites. The long-term deflection tests show that the highest deflections exhibit 1% PVA fiber-reinforced specimens. The lowest amount of deflection is for 1% steel fiber-reinforced specimens. Specific creep shows similar results to plain, and 1% steel fiber-reinforced specimens, while 1% PVA and 0.5% PVA/0.5% steel fiber-reinforced specimen exhibits the same properties. The quantitative microanalysis of the polished section further confirms the deflection results. Specimens with 1% PVA fiber reinforcement have significantly higher porosity than all other specimens. They are followed by plain specimens and 1% steel fiber, and 0.5% PVA/0.5 steel fiber-reinforced specimens have almost the same porosity level. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Preparation and Properties of New Cementitious Materials)

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11 pages, 4046 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Recycled Fine Aggregate Content on Properties of Soft Soil Solidified by Industrial Waste Residue

by Anhui Wang, Qiwei Zhan, Wanying Dong, Weiyang Gu, Juanlan Zhou and Zhihong Pan

Materials 2022, 15(21), 7580; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15217580 - 28 Oct 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1091

Abstract

The influence of recycled fine aggregate content on the properties of soft soil solidified by industrial waste residue was systematically studied. First, the addition of recycled fine aggregate may provide skeleton support, which was conducive to improving the solidification properties. Comparing the addition [...] Read more.

The influence of recycled fine aggregate content on the properties of soft soil solidified by industrial waste residue was systematically studied. First, the addition of recycled fine aggregate may provide skeleton support, which was conducive to improving the solidification properties. Comparing the addition of recycled fine aggregate content and a composite solidification agent separately, the compressive strength increased 48.01 times and 1.32 times, respectively. Second, the composition and quantity of the hydration products were analyzed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and thermal gravity analysis (TG/DTG). In addition to silicon dioxide and aluminum oxide, a number of new minerals, including hydrated calcium silicate, calcium hydroxide and ettringite, were produced under different recycled fine aggregate contents. The diffraction peak of hydrated calcium hydroxide was weak, which indicated that the crystallinity and relative content was low. The main reason for this was that it was consumed as the activator of the secondary hydration reaction of blast furnace slag. With the increase in recycled fine aggregate content, the total weight loss (hydration products, crystal water, impurities) increased significantly, at rates of 6.9%, 7.0%, 7.2%, 8.8% and 9.7%. The addition of recycled fine aggregate does not change the composition and quantity of the hydration products, and the increased weight loss in this part might be caused by the cement paste attached to the surface of the recycled fine aggregate. Finally, their microstructure was analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Larger and more pores appeared in the solidification system with the increase in recycled fine aggregate, and a large amount of ettringite was prepared. An excess in recycled fine aggregate caused more pores, and the negative impact of too many pores exceeded the lifting effect of the aggregate, resulting in the decline of its mechanical properties. Therefore, there was a suitable range for the use of recycled fine aggregate, which was not more than 40%. In conclusion, recycled fine aggregate not only acts as a skeleton to improve solidification strength, but could also realize the comprehensive utilization of waste, which provided a new scheme for solid waste utilization and soft soil solidification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Preparation and Properties of New Cementitious Materials)

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Review

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29 pages, 12713 KiB

Open AccessReview

Piezoresistivity and AC Impedance Spectroscopy of Cement-Based Sensors: Basic Concepts, Interpretation, and Perspective

by Amir A. E. Elseady, Ivan Lee, Yan Zhuge, Xing Ma, Christopher W. K. Chow and Nima Gorjian

Materials 2023, 16(2), 768; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16020768 - 12 Jan 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1846

Abstract

Cement-based sensors include conductive fillers to achieve a sensing capability based on the piezoresistivity phenomenon, in which the electrical resistivity changes with strain. The microstructural characterisation of cement-based sensors can be obtained using a promising non-destructive technique, such as AC impedance spectroscopy (ACIS), [...] Read more.

Cement-based sensors include conductive fillers to achieve a sensing capability based on the piezoresistivity phenomenon, in which the electrical resistivity changes with strain. The microstructural characterisation of cement-based sensors can be obtained using a promising non-destructive technique, such as AC impedance spectroscopy (ACIS), which has been recently used by many researchers. This paper reviews the fundamental concepts of piezoresistivity and ACIS in addition to the comparison of equivalent circuit models of cement-based sensors found in the literature. These concepts include piezoresistivity theory, factors affecting piezoresistivity measurement, resistance measurement methodology, strain/damage sensing, causes of piezoresistivity, theories of conduction, AC impedance spectroscopy theory, and the equivalent circuit model. This review aims to provide a comprehensive guide for researchers and practitioners interested in exploring and applying different techniques to self-sensing concrete. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Preparation and Properties of New Cementitious Materials)

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