Research

15 pages, 3484 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Varying the Volume Fractions of Ledeburitic Cementite and Graphite on the Tribological Properties of Commercially Used Cast Irons

by Łukasz Frocisz, Piotr Matusiewicz and Janusz Krawczyk

Lubricants 2023, 11(12), 498; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants11120498 - 22 Nov 2023

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Abstract

The types and volume fractions of the carbonaceous phases present in the microstructures of cast irons strongly influence their properties. In the case of materials used commercially for tools, an important parameter with regard to their use is the resistance to abrasion wear. [...] Read more.

The types and volume fractions of the carbonaceous phases present in the microstructures of cast irons strongly influence their properties. In the case of materials used commercially for tools, an important parameter with regard to their use is the resistance to abrasion wear. Cementite is the main reinforcing phase in cast irons and is present in significant quantities. In addition, cast irons contain graphite precipitates, which also affect wear by interacting with the matrix of the alloys. In this study, abrasive wear tests were carried out on a group of cast irons with different chemical compositions and, consequently, different microstructural morphologies. Due to the wide scatter of the results and the commercial rather than laboratory nature of the alloys studied, it was decided to use analysis of variance (ANOVA) to determine whether there was a statistically significant difference between the volume fractions of the carbonaceous phases. The volume fractions of graphite and ledeburite were then related to the results of the tribological tests. Statistical analysis confirmed significant differences in the results obtained for the alloys tested. A continuous increase in the volume fractions of both graphite and ledeburitic cementite is unfavourable in terms of the wear resistance and friction coefficient values. Optimum results can be obtained by balancing the volume fractions of the two phases observed. In addition, the phase composition of the material matrix plays an important role in wear, as the differences in the matrix of the tested alloys modify the nature of the influence of cementite and graphite on the wear. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frictional Behavior and Wear Performance of Cast Irons)

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15 pages, 13753 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Tribological Behavior of Cast Iron by Laser Surface Texturing under Oil-Lubricated Initial Line Contact for Rotary Compressor

by Shaopeng Ding, Yusheng Hu, Huijun Wei, Di Mu, Xiangzhi Zhan, Jun Wang, Ouxiang Yang and Jia Xu

Lubricants 2023, 11(11), 486; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants11110486 - 10 Nov 2023

Viewed by 1291

Abstract

The tribological behaviors of cast iron by laser surface texturing were experimentally compared with the behavior of untextured by unidirectional rotary sliding friction and wear tests under oil-lubricated initial line contact. The friction coefficient and temperature rise were analyzed with the increasing load [...] Read more.

The tribological behaviors of cast iron by laser surface texturing were experimentally compared with the behavior of untextured by unidirectional rotary sliding friction and wear tests under oil-lubricated initial line contact. The friction coefficient and temperature rise were analyzed with the increasing load applied by block-on-ring tests. In addition, the wear loss and wear mechanism were also investigated through the surface topographies analysis. The results showed that the tribological improvement strongly depended on the contact form. For the oil-lubricated initial line contact in this work, the textured surface showed a better frictional advantage with a lower friction coefficient and lower temperature rise. The hydrodynamic effect enhanced the load-carrying capacity of the oil film and increased the film thickness. The friction coefficients were 11~64% lower than those on the untextured one. Meanwhile, the textured surface deteriorated the wear behavior due to the coupling effect between the micro-cutting effect of the texture edges and the material deformations of the counter surface. The material loss induced by abrasive wear and fatigue wear was the dominant wear mechanism. Namely, the laser surface texturing improved the friction properties but reduced the wear resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frictional Behavior and Wear Performance of Cast Irons)

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12 pages, 4839 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Mechanical Properties of Grey Cast Irons Reinforced with Carbon Titanium Nitride (TiNC)

by Rifat Yakut

Lubricants 2023, 11(10), 454; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants11100454 - 22 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1691

Abstract

In this study, grey cast iron (GG25) was produced via reinforcement with carbon titanium nitride (TiNC) in different amounts (0%, 0.153%, 0.204% and 0.255%). Samples were made from this material according to the standards for hardness, compression and wear, and then experiments were [...] Read more.

In this study, grey cast iron (GG25) was produced via reinforcement with carbon titanium nitride (TiNC) in different amounts (0%, 0.153%, 0.204% and 0.255%). Samples were made from this material according to the standards for hardness, compression and wear, and then experiments were conducted. The test conditions applied for the TiNC-reinforced samples were similarly applied to unreinforced samples. The TiNC-reinforced and unreinforced samples were compared regarding their compression, hardness, and wear properties. The results of the hardness tests showed the highest average hardness value of 215 HB for sample A (0% TiNC). For TiNC-reinforced specimens, the hardness values of the reinforced specimens increased with increasing reinforcement. Sample B (0.153% TiNC) had an average hardness value of 193 HB. For sample C (0.204% TiNC), an average hardness value of 200 HB was measured. For sample D (0.255% TiNC), an average hardness value of 204 HB was determined. Sample A’s highest compression strength value was 780 MPA (0% TiNC). Similar to the hardness test values, the compression strength of the reinforced samples increased with the increasing reinforcement rate. The compression test value was found to be 747 MPa for sample B (0.153% TiNC), 765 MPa for sample C (0.204% TiNC) and 778 MPa for sample D (0.255% TiNC). Wear tests were performed on all samples to examine changes in the wear volume loss, wear rate and friction coefficients. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to determine the wear mechanisms on the worn surfaces of the samples. When examining the wear condition of the samples with the same hardness value as a function of increasing load values, increases in the wear volume loss values were observed as the load value increased. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frictional Behavior and Wear Performance of Cast Irons)

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13 pages, 9627 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Resistance to Wear during Friction without Lubrication of Steel-Cast Iron Pairing with Nanocrystalline Structure-Reinforced Surface Layers

by Ihor Hurey, Pavlo Maruschak, Andy Augousti, Alan Flowers, Volodymyr Gurey, Volodymyr Dzyura and Olegas Prentkovskis

Lubricants 2023, 11(10), 418; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants11100418 - 24 Sep 2023

Viewed by 1159

Abstract

During the TDT of 41Cr4 steel specimens, a uniformly reinforced white layer with a nano-crystalline structure is formed in the surface layers. The wear resistance of sliding friction without the lubrication of a pair of steel 41Cr4—grey cast iron EN-GJL-200 (EN) under the [...] Read more.

During the TDT of 41Cr4 steel specimens, a uniformly reinforced white layer with a nano-crystalline structure is formed in the surface layers. The wear resistance of sliding friction without the lubrication of a pair of steel 41Cr4—grey cast iron EN-GJL-200 (EN) under the face-to-face (“ring-ring”) scheme has been studied. It is revealed that when the sliding velocity changes from 0.25 m/s to 4 m/s and the unit load changes from 0.2 MPa to 1.0 MPa, a pair with a reinforced surface layer on 41Cr4 steel specimens and unreinforced specimens of EN-GJL-200 (EN) grey cast iron has a higher wear resistance than an unreinforced pair. The wear resistance increases for both reinforced and not reinforced specimens operating in a friction pair. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frictional Behavior and Wear Performance of Cast Irons)

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13 pages, 5237 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Friction Coefficient Changes in Recycled Composite Materials under Constant Load

by Aydın Güneş, Hayrettin Düzcükoğlu, Emin Salur, Abdullah Aslan and Ömer Sinan Şahin

Lubricants 2023, 11(9), 407; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants11090407 - 18 Sep 2023

Viewed by 1060

Abstract

The surface quality of machine elements may deteriorate over time while operating under different conditions. This deterioration adversely affects the wear behavior in the contact areas, and these materials become unusable over time. In machine elements especially, the heat transfer, wear amount and [...] Read more.

The surface quality of machine elements may deteriorate over time while operating under different conditions. This deterioration adversely affects the wear behavior in the contact areas, and these materials become unusable over time. In machine elements especially, the heat transfer, wear amount and surface roughness parameters in the contact area are very important in order for the system to work efficiently. In order to understand this change, composite materials were produced by adding spheroidal graphite cast iron (GGG40) with high lubricating properties at different rates to bronze (CuSn10), which is widely used as a self-lubricating bearing material. In this study, four different mixing ratios (B60D40, B70D30, B80D20 and B90D10) and B100, which is completely produced from bronze chips, were used for comparison purposes. In addition, these produced composite materials were compared with pure CuSn10 and pure GGG40 via double-acting isostatic hot pressing, and then the results were examined. The composite materials were made at two different temperatures (400 °C and 450 °C) and three different pressures (480 MPa, 640 MPa and 820 MPa) using recycled waste chips. Composites produced by recycling waste chips both reduce costs and make a positive contribution to the natural environment. Thus, more advantageous self-lubricating bearing materials will be produced, and the efficiency will be increased in these materials. The time-dependent variation in the friction coefficient observed after the wear tests performed under constant load is explained, and the resulting surface structures are presented with SEM images and EDS analyses. After the wear tests, it was observed that the process parameters used in production effectively influenced the wear behavior. In particular, when the production pressure was low (480 MPa), the wear behavior was adversely affected because sufficient bonding between the chips could not be achieved. In addition, as the amount of GGG40 used as a reinforcement material increased, the spheroidal graphite contained in it positively affected the wear behavior. The lubricating effect provided by this spheroidal graphite reduced wear in the contact area and the friction coefficient. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frictional Behavior and Wear Performance of Cast Irons)

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17 pages, 52292 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Tempering Temperature on Abrasive-Wear Performance of High-Chromium-Based Multicomponent White Cast Iron

by Riki Hendra Purba, Kenta Kusumoto, Kazumichi Shimizu, Yila Gaqi and Mohammad Jobayer Huq

Lubricants 2023, 11(7), 285; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants11070285 - 05 Jul 2023

Viewed by 1148

Abstract

Recently, high-Cr multicomponent white cast iron after quenching is known to have superior abrasive-wear resistance. However, this material is prone to cracking due to the precipitation of very hard carbides resulting in very limited application. However, the cracking tendency might be reduced by [...] Read more.

Recently, high-Cr multicomponent white cast iron after quenching is known to have superior abrasive-wear resistance. However, this material is prone to cracking due to the precipitation of very hard carbides resulting in very limited application. However, the cracking tendency might be reduced by appropriate tempering temperature. Therefore, the three-body abrasive-wear resistance of 18 wt.% and 27 wt.% Cr based on 3 wt.% Mo, W, V, and Co with different temperatures of tempering was studied. These are abbreviated as 18Cr MCCI and 27Cr MCCI. The tempering temperature range was 653–813 K with an interval of 20 K after the quenching process. The quenched specimens were used as comparison materials, and three tempered specimens were selected. Thus, there are quenched (Q), quenched-tempered at low temperature (T_LT), quenched-tempered at medium temperature (T_MT), and quenched-tempered at high temperature (T_HT) specimens. From the results, it can be known that the wear resistance of the material decreases as Cr percentage and tempering temperature increase. Therefore, the 18Cr MCCI Q has better wear performance than specimens of other conditions. Yet, different results occur in the group of 27Cr MCCI. The material is more wear-resistant after tempering despite the lower hardness of the material. This might be owing to the higher fracture toughness of the M₇C₃ carbide, which is higher after the tempering process compared with quenching only. Therefore, it can be said that it is important to maintain the hardness of the material to achieve better wear resistance. However, in materials containing large M₇C₃ carbides, the fracture toughness of carbides should also be considered. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frictional Behavior and Wear Performance of Cast Irons)

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11 pages, 9882 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Carbide Orientation on Wear Characteristics of High-Alloy Wear-Resistant Cast Irons

by Yila Gaqi, Kenta Kusumoto, Kazumichi Shimizu and Riki Hendra Purba

Lubricants 2023, 11(7), 272; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants11070272 - 22 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 948

Abstract

Both erosive and abrasive wear are common in mechanical systems and moving components in industrial production. Once they occur in machine parts, the task of breakdown maintenance should be carried out, leading to high production costs. Previous research has shown that high-chromium cast [...] Read more.

Both erosive and abrasive wear are common in mechanical systems and moving components in industrial production. Once they occur in machine parts, the task of breakdown maintenance should be carried out, leading to high production costs. Previous research has shown that high-chromium cast iron (HCCI), a commonly used wear-resistant material, experiences repeated particle impacts that break up the chromium carbides (M₇C₃) on its surface, resulting in the formation of fine fracture carbides. It has been reported that erosion wear occurs progressively due to the shedding of protrusions caused by the plastic deformation of the material’s matrix. Thus, the erosion wear characteristics of a material are strongly affected by carbides, which come in various shapes and can affect resistance. This research examined the orientation of carbides on the microstructure and their effects on erosion and abrasion properties. The wear tests showed that 27 wt.% chromium content high-alloy cast irons showed the best wear resistance properties due to the coarse strips of M₇C₃ carbides that effectively suppressed wear propagation. Additionally, the M₂C carbides crystallized around the M₇C₃ carbides which support the M₇C₃ carbide to reduce plastic deformation and carbide peel-out. Consequently, the wear resistance properties of this material are significantly improved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frictional Behavior and Wear Performance of Cast Irons)

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15 pages, 15348 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Erosive Wear Behavior of Novel Hybrid Multicomponent Cast Alloys with Different C and B Contents

by Riki Hendra Purba, Kenta Kusumoto, Kazumichi Shimizu and Vasily Efremenko

Lubricants 2023, 11(6), 243; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants11060243 - 31 May 2023

Viewed by 919

Abstract

Multicomponent and high-boron cast alloys have been recognized as materials with excellent wear resistance due to the formation of hard phases called carbides and borides. However, the wear performance of the combination of these two materials called hybrid multicomponent cast alloys (HMCAs) has [...] Read more.

Multicomponent and high-boron cast alloys have been recognized as materials with excellent wear resistance due to the formation of hard phases called carbides and borides. However, the wear performance of the combination of these two materials called hybrid multicomponent cast alloys (HMCAs) has not been comprehensively studied. Therefore, this study will evaluate the effect of C (0–0.9 wt.%) and B (1.5–3.5 wt.%) addition on the erosion wear behavior of an HMCA containing 2.5 wt.% Ti, 10 wt.% Cr, and 5 wt.% each of V, Mo, and W. Shot-blast erosion testing was used to evaluate the wear resistance of each alloy. The test was conducted for 3600 s using 2 kg of irregularly shaped steel sand as a scraper at impact angles of 30°, 60°, and 90°. The results showed that the highest wear rate in 0C and 0.45C with 1.5–3.5% B occurred at an impact angle of 60° due to gouging and indentation mechanisms occurring simultaneously. However, different results occurred in the case of 0.9C with the same amount of B where the wear rate increased with increasing impact angle due to brittleness. Based on the chemical composition, the wear resistance of the alloy increased with increasing C content due to higher hardness values. However, the reverse performance occurred when the addition of B exceeded the threshold (more than 1.5 wt.%) despite the higher hardness. This fact was due to the susceptibility to carbide cracking as the amount of B increased. Therefore, the alloy with the best erosion wear resistance was 0.9C–1.5B HMCA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frictional Behavior and Wear Performance of Cast Irons)

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13 pages, 15168 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical and Tribological Behavior of Austempered Ductile Iron (ADI) under Dry Sliding Conditions

by Zhitao Hu and Yuzhou Du

Lubricants 2023, 11(4), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants11040182 - 18 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1163

Abstract

In the current investigation, a vertically continuous casting technique was used to produce a ductile iron pipe. The ductile iron was austempered, and the tribological behavior of austempered ductile iron (ADI) was examined under various service conditions. The finding demonstrated that ADI’s tribological [...] Read more.

In the current investigation, a vertically continuous casting technique was used to produce a ductile iron pipe. The ductile iron was austempered, and the tribological behavior of austempered ductile iron (ADI) was examined under various service conditions. The finding demonstrated that ADI’s tribological behaviors were significantly affected by normal loads and sliding speeds. Spheroidal graphite was preferential to be transferred from the matrix to the tribosurface in ADI under high normal loads, and high sliding speed accelerated the formation of the graphite lubricating layer on the tribosurface. Consequently, ADI’s friction coefficient dropped with the increase in normal load and sliding speed. When compared with the friction coefficient, the wear rate of ADI displayed a similar tendency in that it increased with an increase in normal load and reduced with an increase in sliding speed. The worn surface indicated that adhesive wear at low sliding speeds and abrasive wear at high sliding speeds were the primary wear mechanisms for ADI. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frictional Behavior and Wear Performance of Cast Irons)

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13 pages, 6609 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Tempering Temperature on Mechanical and Tribological Behavior of Ductile Iron

by Zhitao Hu, Chen Liu, Yuzhou Du, Xin Wang, Xinyu Zhu and Bailing Jiang

Lubricants 2022, 10(12), 326; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10120326 - 23 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1440

Abstract

The mechanical properties and tribological behavior of ductile iron tempered at different temperatures were investigated. The tempered sample was composed of spheroidal graphite, α phase, and carbides. The strength and hardness decreased near-linearly but the plasticity increased with the increase of tempering temperature, [...] Read more.

The mechanical properties and tribological behavior of ductile iron tempered at different temperatures were investigated. The tempered sample was composed of spheroidal graphite, α phase, and carbides. The strength and hardness decreased near-linearly but the plasticity increased with the increase of tempering temperature, which was mainly because carbon atoms precipitated from martensite and thus reduced the distortion of martensite. Wear tests indicated that the friction coefficient of the sample tempered at 420 °C decreased first and then increased with the increasing loads and exhibited the lowest friction coefficient of 0.37. No obvious change was detected for the friction coefficient of the sample tempered at 500 °C at different loads. The friction coefficient of the sample tempered at 580 °C increased to a stable value with the increase of loads. The wear rate of tempered ductile iron was increased with the increase of tempering temperature, which indicated that hardness was the critical factor for wear properties of ductile iron. The main wear mechanisms of tempered ductile iron were adhesive and abrasive wear. Adhesive wear was predominant for the sample tempered at low temperature but was gradually replaced by abrasive wear with the increase of tempering temperature and normal loads. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frictional Behavior and Wear Performance of Cast Irons)

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10 pages, 2946 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Abrasive Wear Resistance of High-Strength Compacted Graphite Iron under Microabrasion Conditions

by Daniela Wollmann, Maria Angélica de Miranda and Giuseppe Pintaude

Lubricants 2022, 10(11), 308; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10110308 - 14 Nov 2022

Viewed by 1387

Abstract

Compacted graphite iron (CGI) has been considered an excellent option for heavy-duty engine blocks due to its superior mechanical properties, which allow reduction of weight, enhancing engine performance. Abrasion is a recognized wear mechanism in engine blocks, meaning it deserves to be evaluated [...] Read more.

Compacted graphite iron (CGI) has been considered an excellent option for heavy-duty engine blocks due to its superior mechanical properties, which allow reduction of weight, enhancing engine performance. Abrasion is a recognized wear mechanism in engine blocks, meaning it deserves to be evaluated for CGI. This study analyzed two grades of high-strength CGI (GJV450 and GJV500) submitted to microscale abrasion tests in free ball configuration using two different slurries: diamond and silica. There was more wear to the surfaces tested with silica due to the particle size, which was one order of magnitude larger than the diamond. The data obtained showed that both materials presented similar resistance when tests were performed with the diamond slurry. On the other hand, when silica was used, GJV500 presented 2.5 times greater wear resistance than GJV450, even though its global hardness was only 17% greater. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frictional Behavior and Wear Performance of Cast Irons)

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11 pages, 4403 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Investigation of Triboelectrification Behaviour in the Friction Process

by Guobin Li, Sifan Yang, Pengfei Xing, Ting Liu, Honglin Gao, Yuchao Song and Hongpeng Zhang

Lubricants 2022, 10(8), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10080180 - 09 Aug 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1487

Abstract

The triboelectrification phenomenon can occur during the friction process of metal contact pairs. An in-depth understanding of triboelectrification behaviour is incredibly beneficial to controlling friction and wear. However, due to the complexity of the driving mechanism, it is still challenging to gain a [...] Read more.

The triboelectrification phenomenon can occur during the friction process of metal contact pairs. An in-depth understanding of triboelectrification behaviour is incredibly beneficial to controlling friction and wear. However, due to the complexity of the driving mechanism, it is still challenging to gain a thorough understanding of the triboelectrification behaviour of metal–metal contact pairs. To further reveal the triboelectrification behaviour during the friction process of metal pairs, wear experiments of GCr15 steel–cast iron were carried out on a CFT-I tribometer under oil-free and oil lubrication conditions. The triboelectric current signal was collected during the investigation, and its variation was discussed. The result shows that the varying trend of the triboelectric current was consistent with that of the friction coefficient in the friction process. The triboelectrification of similar metal contact pairs primarily driven by material transfer was closely related to friction and wear conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frictional Behavior and Wear Performance of Cast Irons)

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