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28 pages, 3443 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Selection of Salinity-Adapted Endorhizal Fungal Consortia from Two Inoculum Sources and Six Halophyte Plants

by Jesús Adrián Barajas González, Rogelio Carrillo-González, Ma. del Carmen Angeles González-Chávez, Eduardo Chimal Sánchez and Daniel Tapia Maruri

J. Fungi 2023, 9(9), 893; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9090893 - 31 Aug 2023

Viewed by 1250

Abstract

Soil salinity is a limiting factor in crop productivity. Inoculating crops with microorganisms adapted to salt stress is an alternative to increasing plant salinity tolerance. Few studies have simultaneously propagated arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and dark septate fungi (DSF) using different sources of [...] Read more.

Soil salinity is a limiting factor in crop productivity. Inoculating crops with microorganisms adapted to salt stress is an alternative to increasing plant salinity tolerance. Few studies have simultaneously propagated arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and dark septate fungi (DSF) using different sources of native inoculum from halophyte plants and evaluated their effectiveness. In alfalfa plants as trap culture, this study assessed the infectivity of 38 microbial consortia native from rhizosphere soil (19) or roots (19) from six halophyte plants, as well as their effectiveness in mitigating salinity stress. Inoculation with soil resulted in 26–56% colonization by AMF and 12–32% by DSF. Root inoculation produced 10–56% and 8–24% colonization by AMF and DSF, respectively. There was no difference in the number of spores of AMF produced with both inoculum types. The effective consortia were selected based on low Na but high P and K shoot concentrations that are variable and are relevant for plant nutrition and salt stress mitigation. This microbial consortia selection may be a novel and applicable model, which would allow the production of native microbial inoculants adapted to salinity to diminish the harmful effects of salinity stress in glycophyte plants in the context of sustainable agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions, 2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 2966 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Local Competition and Enhanced Defense: How Metarhizium brunneum Inhibits Verticillium longisporum in Oilseed Rape Plants

by Catalina Posada-Vergara, Stefan Vidal and Michael Rostás

J. Fungi 2023, 9(8), 796; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9080796 - 28 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1121

Abstract

Metarhizium brunneum is a soil-borne fungal entomopathogen that can be associated with plant roots. Previous studies have demonstrated that root colonization by beneficial fungi can directly affect soil-borne pathogens through competition and antibiosis and can activate a systemic response in plants, resulting in [...] Read more.

Metarhizium brunneum is a soil-borne fungal entomopathogen that can be associated with plant roots. Previous studies have demonstrated that root colonization by beneficial fungi can directly affect soil-borne pathogens through competition and antibiosis and can activate a systemic response in plants, resulting in a primed state for a faster and/or stronger response to stressors. However, the mechanisms by which Metarhizium inoculation ameliorates symptoms caused by plant pathogens are not well known. This study evaluated the ability of M. brunneum to protect oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) plants against the soil-borne pathogen Verticillium longisporum and investigated whether the observed effects are a result of direct interaction and/or plant-mediated effects. In vitro and greenhouse experiments were conducted to measure fungal colonization of the rhizosphere and plant tissues, and targeted gene expression analysis was used to evaluate the plant response. The results show that M. brunneum delayed pathogen colonization of plant root tissues, resulting in decreased disease symptoms. Direct competition and antibiosis were found to be part of the mechanisms, as M. brunneum growth was stimulated by the pathogen and inhibited the in vitro growth of V. longisporum. Additionally, M. brunneum changed the plant response to the pathogen by locally activating key defense hormones in the salicylic acid (SA) and abscisic acid (ABA) pathways. Using a split-root setup, it was demonstrated that there is a plant-mediated effect, as improved plant growth and decreased disease symptoms were observed when M. brunneum was in the systemic compartment. Moreover, a stronger systemic induction of the gene PR1 suggested a priming effect, involving the SA pathway. Overall, this study sheds light on the mechanisms underlying the protective effects of M. brunneum against soil-borne pathogens in oilseed rape plants, highlighting the potential of this fungal entomopathogen as a biocontrol agent in sustainable agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions, 2nd Edition)

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20 pages, 7662 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Symbiotic Fungus Sistotrema Benefits Blueberry Rejuvenation and Abiotic Stress Tolerance

by Yu Ye, Xufang Zhan, Kai Wang, Jingya Zhong, Fanglei Liao, Wenrong Chen and Weidong Guo

J. Fungi 2023, 9(7), 779; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9070779 - 24 Jul 2023

Viewed by 1119

Abstract

Blueberry (Vaccinium spp.) rhizosphere microorganisms can significantly increase the absorption area and improve the efficiency of rhizospheric nutrient uptake. However, there has been little research on blueberry rhizosphere microorganisms, especially those that can complement root function deficiency. In this study, we analyzed [...] Read more.

Blueberry (Vaccinium spp.) rhizosphere microorganisms can significantly increase the absorption area and improve the efficiency of rhizospheric nutrient uptake. However, there has been little research on blueberry rhizosphere microorganisms, especially those that can complement root function deficiency. In this study, we analyzed the rhizosphere fungi of ‘O’Neal,’ ‘Sharpblue,’ and ‘Premier’ blueberry cultivars and found that ‘Premier’ blueberries showed strong growth potential and relatively high root regulation ability. The dominant symbiotic fungus Sistotrema was correlated with the strong growth of ‘Premier’ and was directionally screened and isolated based on conserved gene structures and COG function analysis. This fungus was reinoculated onto the roots of ‘Gulfcoast’ and ‘Star’ blueberry cultivars. Sistotrema promoted the growth of blueberries and improved their ability to resist stress and grow under adverse conditions, as indicated by maintained or increased chlorophyll content under such conditions. Further analyses showed that Sistotrema has certain functional characteristics such as the ability to dissolve iron in its insoluble form and then release it, to fix nitrogen, and to inhibit nitrification in soil. Thus, it effectively doubled the soil nitrogen content and increased the soluble iron content in soil by 50%. This investigation indicates sistotrema inoculation as an approach to increase blueberry stress tolerance and complete their root nutrition deficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions, 2nd Edition)

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31 pages, 6480 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Frq–Frh Complex Light-Dependently Delays Sfl1-Induced Microsclerotia Formation in Verticillium dahliae

by Alexandra Nagel, Miriam Leonard, Isabel Maurus, Jessica Starke, Kerstin Schmitt, Oliver Valerius, Rebekka Harting and Gerhard H. Braus

J. Fungi 2023, 9(7), 725; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9070725 - 04 Jul 2023

Viewed by 1055

Abstract

The vascular plant pathogenic fungus Verticillium dahliae has to adapt to environmental changes outside and inside its host. V. dahliae harbors homologs of Neurospora crassa clock genes. The molecular functions and interactions of Frequency (Frq) and Frq-interacting RNA helicase (Frh) in controlling conidia or [...] Read more.

The vascular plant pathogenic fungus Verticillium dahliae has to adapt to environmental changes outside and inside its host. V. dahliae harbors homologs of Neurospora crassa clock genes. The molecular functions and interactions of Frequency (Frq) and Frq-interacting RNA helicase (Frh) in controlling conidia or microsclerotia development were investigated in V. dahliae JR2. Fungal mutant strains carrying clock gene deletions, an FRH point mutation, or GFP gene fusions were analyzed on transcript, protein, and phenotypic levels as well as in pathogenicity assays on tomato plants. Our results support that the Frq–Frh complex is formed and that it promotes conidiation, but also that it suppresses and therefore delays V. dahliae microsclerotia formation in response to light. We investigated a possible link between the negative element Frq and positive regulator Suppressor of flocculation 1 (Sfl1) in microsclerotia formation to elucidate the regulatory molecular mechanism. Both Frq and Sfl1 are mainly present during the onset of microsclerotia formation with decreasing protein levels during further development. Induction of microsclerotia formation requires Sfl1 and can be delayed at early time points in the light through the Frq–Frh complex. Gaining further molecular knowledge on V. dahliae development will improve control of fungal growth and Verticillium wilt disease. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions, 2nd Edition)

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13 pages, 1487 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Different Light Wavelengths on Zymoseptoria tritici Development and Leaf Colonization in Bread Wheat

by Minely Cerón-Bustamante, Francesco Tini, Giovanni Beccari, Paolo Benincasa and Lorenzo Covarelli

J. Fungi 2023, 9(6), 670; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9060670 - 14 Jun 2023

Viewed by 1188

Abstract

The wheat pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici can respond to light by modulating its gene expression. Because several virulence-related genes are differentially expressed in response to light, different wavelengths could have a crucial role in the Z. tritici–wheat interaction. To explore this opportunity, the [...] Read more.

The wheat pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici can respond to light by modulating its gene expression. Because several virulence-related genes are differentially expressed in response to light, different wavelengths could have a crucial role in the Z. tritici–wheat interaction. To explore this opportunity, the aim of this study was to analyze the effect of blue (470 nm), red (627 nm), blue–red, and white light on the in vitro and in planta development of Z. tritici. The morphology (mycelium appearance, color) and phenotypic (mycelium growth) characteristics of a Z. tritici strain were evaluated after 14 days under the different light conditions in two independent experiments. In addition, bread wheat plants were artificially inoculated with Z. tritici and grown for 35 days under the same light treatments. The disease incidence, severity, and fungal DNA were analyzed in a single experiment. Statistical differences were determined by using an ANOVA. The obtained results showed that the different light wavelengths induced specific morphological changes in mycelial growth. The blue light significantly reduced colony growth, while the dark and red light favored fungal development (p < 0.05). The light quality also influenced host colonization, whereby the white and red light had stimulating and repressing effects, respectively (p < 0.05). This precursory study demonstrated the influence of light on Z. tritici colonization in bread wheat. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions, 2nd Edition)

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11 pages, 1920 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Metarhizium brunneum- and Metarhizium-Derived VOCs as Dual-Active Biostimulants and Pest Repellents in a Wireworm-Infested Potato Field

by Martyn J. Wood, Alexandra M. Kortsinoglou, James C. Bull, Daniel C. Eastwood, Vassili N. Kouvelis, Pierre A. Bourdon, E. Joel Loveridge, Stephen Mathias, Abigail Meyrick, Audun Midthassel, Arben Myrta and Tariq Butt

J. Fungi 2023, 9(6), 599; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9060599 - 23 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1270

Abstract

Wireworm, the larval stages of click beetles, are a serious pest of tubers, brassicas and other important commercial crops throughout the northern hemisphere. No effective control agent has been developed specifically for them, and many of the pesticides marketed as having secondary application [...] Read more.

Wireworm, the larval stages of click beetles, are a serious pest of tubers, brassicas and other important commercial crops throughout the northern hemisphere. No effective control agent has been developed specifically for them, and many of the pesticides marketed as having secondary application against them have been withdrawn from EU and Asian markets. Metarhizium brunneum, an effective entomopathogenic fungus, and its derived volatile metabolites are known to be effective plant biostimulants and plant protectants, although field efficacy has yet to be validated. Field validation of a combined M. brunneum and derived VOC treatments was conducted in Wales, UK, to assess the effects of each as a wireworm control agent and biostimulant. Plots were treated with Tri-Soil (Trichoderma atroviridae), M. brunneum, 1-octen-3-ol or 3-octanone, or combinations thereof. Treatments were applied subsurface during potato seeding (n = 52), and potatoes were harvested at the end of the growing season. Each potato was weighed individually and scored for levels of wireworm damage. Applications of both the VOCs and the M. brunneum individually were found to significantly decrease wireworm burden (p < 0.001). Combinations of M. brunneum and 3-octanone were also found to significantly decrease wireworm damage (p < 0.001), while no effect on yield was reported, resulting in an increased saleable mass over controls (p < 0.001). Herein, we present a novel ‘stimulate and deter’ wireworm control strategy that can be used to significantly enhance saleable potato yields and control wireworm populations, even under high pest pressure densities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions, 2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 1736 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Dark Septate Endophyte Improves Cadmium Tolerance of Maize by Modifying Root Morphology and Promoting Cadmium Binding to the Cell Wall and Phosphate

by Si Chen, Guangqun Zhang, Xinran Liang, Lei Wang, Zuran Li, Yongmei He, Bo Li and Fangdong Zhan

J. Fungi 2023, 9(5), 531; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9050531 - 29 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1256

Abstract

Dark septate endophytes (DSEs) can improve the performance of host plants grown in heavy metal-polluted soils, but the mechanism is still unclear. A sand culture experiment was performed to investigate the effects of a DSE strain (Exophiala pisciphila) on maize growth, [...] Read more.

Dark septate endophytes (DSEs) can improve the performance of host plants grown in heavy metal-polluted soils, but the mechanism is still unclear. A sand culture experiment was performed to investigate the effects of a DSE strain (Exophiala pisciphila) on maize growth, root morphology, and cadmium (Cd) uptake under Cd stress at different concentrations (0, 5, 10, and 20 mg·kg⁻¹). The results indicated that the DSE significantly improved the Cd tolerance of maize, causing increases in biomass, plant height, and root morphology (length, tips, branch, and crossing number); enhancing the Cd retention in roots with a decrease in the transfer coefficient of Cd in maize plants; and increasing the Cd proportion in the cell wall by 16.0–25.6%. In addition, DSE significantly changed the chemical forms of Cd in maize roots, resulting in decreases in the proportions of pectates and protein-integrated Cd by 15.6–32.4%, but an increase in the proportion of insoluble phosphate Cd by 33.3–83.3%. The correlation analysis revealed a significantly positive relationship between the root morphology and the proportions of insoluble phosphate Cd and Cd in the cell wall. Therefore, the DSE improved the Cd tolerance of plants both by modifying root morphology, and by promoting Cd binding to the cell walls and forming an insoluble phosphate Cd of lower activity. These results of this study provide comprehensive evidence for the mechanisms by which DSE colonization enhances Cd tolerance in maize in root morphology with Cd subcellular distribution and chemical forms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions, 2nd Edition)

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20 pages, 3125 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fungal Endophytes Enhance Wheat and Tomato Drought Tolerance in Terms of Plant Growth and Biochemical Parameters

by Victoria Miranda, Gloria Andrea Silva-Castro, Juan Manuel Ruiz-Lozano, Sebastian Fracchia and Inmaculada García-Romera

J. Fungi 2023, 9(3), 384; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9030384 - 21 Mar 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2404

Abstract

Drought is a major threat to plant growth in many parts of the world. During periods of drought, multiple aspects of plant physiology are negatively affected. For instance, water shortages induce osmotic imbalance, inhibit photosynthesis, decrease nutrient uptake, and increases the production of [...] Read more.

Drought is a major threat to plant growth in many parts of the world. During periods of drought, multiple aspects of plant physiology are negatively affected. For instance, water shortages induce osmotic imbalance, inhibit photosynthesis, decrease nutrient uptake, and increases the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). In this context, it is necessary to develop sustainable strategies for crops that would help mitigate these conditions. In previous studies, endophytic Zopfiella erostrata strains were found to extensively colonize plant roots, forming a profuse melanized mycelium in the rhizosphere, which could be involved in improving water uptake and nutrient mineralization in plants. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of different strains of Z. erostrata on stress mitigation in wheat and tomato plants grown under water deficit conditions. General plant growth variables, as well as physiological and biochemical parameters, related to oxidative status were determined. Our data demonstrate that inoculation with both Zopfiella strains had a very significant effect on plant growth, even under water deficit conditions. However, we observed an even more pronounced impact, depending on the plant and strain involved, suggesting a certain degree of plant/strain compatibility. The biochemical aspects, the accumulation of proline, the oxidative damage to lipids, and the activity of antioxidant enzymes varied considerably depending on the endophyte and the plant evaluated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions, 2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 8571 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Morphological and Transcriptional Characteristics of the Symbiotic Interaction between Pinus massoniana and Suillus bovinus

by Wanyan Feng, Xueguang Sun and Guijie Ding

J. Fungi 2022, 8(11), 1162; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8111162 - 03 Nov 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1622

Abstract

Ectomycorrhiza (ECM) function has been well studied; however, there is little detailed information regarding the establishment of ECM symbioses. We investigated the morphological and transcriptional changes that occur during the establishment of the Pinus massoniana–Suillus bovinus ECM. S. bovinus promoted the [...] Read more.

Ectomycorrhiza (ECM) function has been well studied; however, there is little detailed information regarding the establishment of ECM symbioses. We investigated the morphological and transcriptional changes that occur during the establishment of the Pinus massoniana–Suillus bovinus ECM. S. bovinus promoted the growth of P. massoniana via the release of volatile organic compounds and exudates during the pre-symbiotic stage. Exudate-induced effects showed host plant specificity. At seven days post-inoculation (dpi), the mycelium started to penetrate P. massoniana roots. At 28 dpi, the Hartig net and mantle formed. At the pre-symbiotic stage, most differentially expressed genes in P. massoniana roots were mapped to the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, signal transduction, and carbohydrate metabolism. At the symbiotic stage, S. bovinus colonization induced the reprogramming of pathways involved in genetic information processing in P. massoniana, particularly at the Hartig net and mantle formation stage. Phenylpropanoid biosynthesis was present at all stages and was regulated via S. bovinus colonization. Enzyme inhibitor tests suggested that hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA shikimate/quinate transferase is involved in the development of the Hartig net. Our findings outline the mechanism involved in the P. massoniana–S. bovinus ECM. Further studies are needed to clarify the role of phenylpropanoid biosynthesis in ECM formation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions, 2nd Edition)

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13 pages, 1258 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Reduce Cadmium Leaching from Sand Columns by Reducing Availability and Enhancing Uptake by Maize Roots

by Zihao Yu, Xiaoling Zhao, Xinran Liang, Zuran Li, Lei Wang, Yongmei He and Fangdong Zhan

J. Fungi 2022, 8(8), 866; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8080866 - 17 Aug 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1568

Abstract

To explore the effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) on the environmental migration of cadmium (Cd), a sand column-maize system containing 20 mg·L⁻¹ Cd solution was used to investigate the AMF effect on maize growth, Cd uptake by maize, Cd adsorption by [...] Read more.

To explore the effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) on the environmental migration of cadmium (Cd), a sand column-maize system containing 20 mg·L⁻¹ Cd solution was used to investigate the AMF effect on maize growth, Cd uptake by maize, Cd adsorption by sand and Cd leaching loss. The results showed that AMF significantly increased the content of EE-GRSP and T-GRSP by 34.9% and 37.2%, respectively; the secretion of malonic acid, oxalic acid and succinic acid increased by 154.2%, 54.0% and 11.0%, respectively; the secretion of acetic acid and citric acid increased by 95.5% and 59.9%, respectively; and the length, surface area, volume, tip number and cross number of maize roots decreased by 10%, 15%, 17%, 20% and 36.4%, respectively. AMF significantly increased Cd adsorption by sand by 6.2%, Cd uptake by maize by 68.1%, and Cd leaching loss by 84.6%. In the sand column-maize system, 92.3% of the total Cd was adsorbed by sand, 5.9% was taken up by maize and 1.8% was lost due to leaching. Moreover, Cd adsorption by sand was significantly positively correlated with the GRSP content and oxalic acid secretion, and Cd uptake by roots was significantly negatively correlated with Cd leaching loss. Overall, AMF reduced the loss of Cd in the leaching solution by promoting the release of oxalic acid and GRSP, increasing the adsorption of Cd in the sand and fixing the Cd in the plant to the roots. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions, 2nd Edition)

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29 pages, 9389 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Gene Phylogenetic Approach for Identification and Diversity Analysis of Bipolaris maydis and Curvularia lunata Isolates Causing Foliar Blight of Zea mays

by Nazia Manzar, Abhijeet Shankar Kashyap, Avantika Maurya, Mahendra Vikram Singh Rajawat, Pawan Kumar Sharma, Alok Kumar Srivastava, Manish Roy, Anil Kumar Saxena and Harsh Vardhan Singh

J. Fungi 2022, 8(8), 802; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8080802 - 29 Jul 2022

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 2623

Abstract

Bipolaris species are known to be important plant pathogens that commonly cause leaf spot, root rot, and seedling blight in a wide range of hosts worldwide. In 2017, complex symptomatic cases of maydis leaf blight (caused by Bipolaris maydis) and maize leaf [...] Read more.

Bipolaris species are known to be important plant pathogens that commonly cause leaf spot, root rot, and seedling blight in a wide range of hosts worldwide. In 2017, complex symptomatic cases of maydis leaf blight (caused by Bipolaris maydis) and maize leaf spot (caused by Curvularia lunata) have become increasingly significant in the main maize-growing regions of India. A total of 186 samples of maydis leaf blight and 129 maize leaf spot samples were collected, in 2017, from 20 sampling sites in the main maize-growing regions of India to explore the diversity and identity of this pathogenic causal agent. A total of 77 Bipolaris maydis isolates and 74 Curvularia lunata isolates were screened based on morphological and molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis based on ribosomal markers—nuclear ribosomal DNA (rDNA) internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region, 28S nuclear ribosomal large subunit rRNA gene (LSU), D1/D2 domain of large-subunit (LSU) ribosomal DNA (rDNA), and protein-coding gene-glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH). Due to a dearth of molecular data from ex-type cultures, the use of few gene regions for species resolution, and overlapping morphological features, species recognition in Bipolaris has proven difficult. The present study used the multi-gene phylogenetic approach for proper identification and diversity of geographically distributed B. maydis and C. lunata isolates in Indian settings and provides useful insight into and explanation of its quantitative findings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions, 2nd Edition)

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Review

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14 pages, 857 KiB

Open AccessReview

Fungal Contamination in Microalgal Cultivation: Biological and Biotechnological Aspects of Fungi-Microalgae Interaction

by Carmen Laezza, Giovanna Salbitani and Simona Carfagna

J. Fungi 2022, 8(10), 1099; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8101099 - 18 Oct 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3592

Abstract

In the last few decades, the increasing interest in microalgae as sources of new biomolecules and environmental remediators stimulated scientists’ investigations and industrial applications. Nowadays, microalgae are exploited in different fields such as cosmeceuticals, nutraceuticals and as human and animal food supplements. Microalgae [...] Read more.

In the last few decades, the increasing interest in microalgae as sources of new biomolecules and environmental remediators stimulated scientists’ investigations and industrial applications. Nowadays, microalgae are exploited in different fields such as cosmeceuticals, nutraceuticals and as human and animal food supplements. Microalgae can be grown using various cultivation systems depending on their final application. One of the main problems in microalgae cultivations is the possible presence of biological contaminants. Fungi, among the main contaminants in microalgal cultures, are able to influence the production and quality of biomass significantly. Here, we describe fungal contamination considering both shortcomings and benefits of fungi-microalgae interactions, highlighting the biological aspects of this interaction and the possible biotechnological applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions, 2nd Edition)

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