Journal of Intelligence

17 pages, 393 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Relationship between Executive Functions and Metacognition in College Students

by Mengjiao Wu and Christopher A. Was

J. Intell. 2023, 11(12), 220; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11120220 - 30 Nov 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1751

This study investigated the relationship between executive functions and metacognition. Both constructs have been well-studied, but little research has focused on their connections. The goal of the current investigation was to increase the understanding of the relationship between metacognition and executive functions by [...] Read more.

This study investigated the relationship between executive functions and metacognition. Both constructs have been well-studied, but little research has focused on their connections. The goal of the current investigation was to increase the understanding of the relationship between metacognition and executive functions by assessing the relationships between metacognitive monitoring accuracy and the three component executive functions (updating, inhibition, and shifting) among college students. Metacognitive monitoring accuracy was measured using a knowledge monitoring accuracy (KMA) test. The three components of executive functions, updating, inhibition, and shifting were measured, respectively, using the ABCD updating task, the Stroop color–word interference test, and the letter–number task. The Tower of Hanoi task was used to measure the complex executive functions (inhibition and updating). Correlation and regression analyses were performed to examine the relationships. The results indicate that updating is the only component executive function that significantly correlated with metacognitive monitoring, suggesting that metacognition—specifically, metacognitive monitoring—is associated with at least one component of executive functioning. Full article

10 pages, 487 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceEssay

Illusion as a Cognitive Clash Rooted in Perception

by Daniele Zavagno

J. Intell. 2023, 11(11), 215; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11110215 - 13 Nov 2023

Viewed by 1665

Abstract

Illusions are important ‘tools’ in the study of perceptual processes. Their conception is typically linked to the notion of veridicality in a dual-world framework, in which we either see the macro physical world as it is (ecological approaches) or we derive a faithful [...] Read more.

Illusions are important ‘tools’ in the study of perceptual processes. Their conception is typically linked to the notion of veridicality in a dual-world framework, in which we either see the macro physical world as it is (ecological approaches) or we derive a faithful representation (cognitive approaches) of it. Within such theoretical views, illusions are errors caused by inadequate sensory information (because of poor quality, insufficient quantity, contradictory, etc.). From a phenomenological stance, however, experiencing an illusion does not relate to the physical quality of the distal or proximal stimulus; rather, it depends on a comparison between the actual perception and what one believes should be perceived given the knowledge s/he has gained about the physical stimulus. Within such a framework, illusions are still considered of extreme importance in the study of the processes underpinning perception, but they are not conceived as errors. They represent instead a cognitive clash between actual perception and hypothesized perception based on some sort of comparison, thus also showing their potential as a tool for studying the underpinnings of cognitive processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Grounding Cognition in Perceptual Experience)

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17 pages, 326 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Cultural Intelligence Deployed in One’s Own vs. in a Different Culture: The Same or Different?

by Robert J. Sternberg, Caleb Co, Ilaria Siriner, Arezoo Soleimani-Dashtaki and Chak Haang Wong

J. Intell. 2023, 11(11), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11110212 - 07 Nov 2023

Viewed by 1833

Abstract

Cultural intelligence is one’s ability to adapt when confronted with problems arising in interactions with people or artifacts of cultures other than one’s own. In this study, we explored two maximum-performance tests of cultural intelligence. One, used in previous research, measured cultural intelligence [...] Read more.

Cultural intelligence is one’s ability to adapt when confronted with problems arising in interactions with people or artifacts of cultures other than one’s own. In this study, we explored two maximum-performance tests of cultural intelligence. One, used in previous research, measured cultural intelligence in the context of an individual conducting a business trip in another culture. The second, new to this research, measured cultural intelligence in the context of meeting someone from another culture while one is in the context of one’s own culture. So, the difference between the two tests was whether one was in one’s own culture or another and whether the individual who most had to adapt was oneself or someone else. We found that cultural intelligence in the two contexts was essentially the same construct. Cultural intelligence as measured by a typical-performance test is a different construct from cultural intelligence as measured by a maximum-performance test. In this research, general intelligence showed some limited correlation with cultural intelligence as measured by a maximum-performance, but not a typical-performance test. Cultural intelligence as an ability and as a disposition are not the same but rather complement each other. Full article

15 pages, 333 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Critical Thinking, Intelligence, and Unsubstantiated Beliefs: An Integrative Review

by D. Alan Bensley

J. Intell. 2023, 11(11), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11110207 - 30 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3131

Abstract

A review of the research shows that critical thinking is a more inclusive construct than intelligence, going beyond what general cognitive ability can account for. For instance, critical thinking can more completely account for many everyday outcomes, such as how thinkers reject false [...] Read more.

A review of the research shows that critical thinking is a more inclusive construct than intelligence, going beyond what general cognitive ability can account for. For instance, critical thinking can more completely account for many everyday outcomes, such as how thinkers reject false conspiracy theories, paranormal and pseudoscientific claims, psychological misconceptions, and other unsubstantiated claims. Deficiencies in the components of critical thinking (in specific reasoning skills, dispositions, and relevant knowledge) contribute to unsubstantiated belief endorsement in ways that go beyond what standardized intelligence tests test. Specifically, people who endorse unsubstantiated claims less tend to show better critical thinking skills, possess more relevant knowledge, and are more disposed to think critically. They tend to be more scientifically skeptical and possess a more rational–analytic cognitive style, while those who accept unsubstantiated claims more tend to be more cynical and adopt a more intuitive–experiential cognitive style. These findings suggest that for a fuller understanding of unsubstantiated beliefs, researchers and instructors should also assess specific reasoning skills, relevant knowledge, and dispositions which go beyond what intelligence tests test. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Critical Thinking in Everyday Life)

23 pages, 3642 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Visualizing Cross-Sections of 3D Objects: Developing Efficient Measures Using Item Response Theory

by Mitchell E. Munns, Chuanxiuyue He, Alexis Topete and Mary Hegarty

J. Intell. 2023, 11(11), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11110205 - 28 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1553

Abstract

Spatial ability is important for success in STEM fields but is typically measured using a small number of tests that were not developed in the STEM context, have not been normed with recent samples, or have not been subjected to modern psychometric analyses. [...] Read more.

Spatial ability is important for success in STEM fields but is typically measured using a small number of tests that were not developed in the STEM context, have not been normed with recent samples, or have not been subjected to modern psychometric analyses. Here, an approach to developing valid, reliable, and efficient computer-based tests of spatial skills is proposed and illustrated via the development of an efficient test of the ability to visualize cross-sections of three-dimensional (3D) objects. After pilot testing, three measures of this ability were administered online to 498 participants (256 females, aged 18–20). Two of the measures, the Santa Barbara Solids and Planes of Reference tests had good psychometric properties and measured a domain-general ability to visualize cross-sections, with sub-factors related to item difficulty. Item-level statistics informed the development of the refined versions of these tests and a combined measure composed of the most informative test items. Sex and ethnicity had no significant effects on the combined measure after controlling for mathematics education, verbal ability, and age. The measures ofcross-sectioning ability developed in the context of geology education were found to be too difficult, likely because they measured domain knowledge in addition to cross-sectioning ability. Recommendations are made for the use of cross-section tests in selection and training and for the more general development of spatial ability measures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Intelligence and Learning)

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26 pages, 2051 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Modulating Visuomotor Sequence Learning by Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: What Do We Know So Far?

by Laura Szücs-Bencze, Teodóra Vékony, Orsolya Pesthy, Nikoletta Szabó, Tamás Zsigmond Kincses, Zsolt Turi and Dezso Nemeth

J. Intell. 2023, 11(10), 201; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11100201 - 13 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1912

Abstract

Predictive processes and numerous cognitive, motor, and social skills depend heavily on sequence learning. The visuomotor Serial Reaction Time Task (SRTT) can measure this fundamental cognitive process. To comprehend the neural underpinnings of the SRTT, non-invasive brain stimulation stands out as one of [...] Read more.

Predictive processes and numerous cognitive, motor, and social skills depend heavily on sequence learning. The visuomotor Serial Reaction Time Task (SRTT) can measure this fundamental cognitive process. To comprehend the neural underpinnings of the SRTT, non-invasive brain stimulation stands out as one of the most effective methodologies. Nevertheless, a systematic list of considerations for the design of such interventional studies is currently lacking. To address this gap, this review aimed to investigate whether repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is a viable method of modulating visuomotor sequence learning and to identify the factors that mediate its efficacy. We systematically analyzed the eligible records (n = 17) that attempted to modulate the performance of the SRTT with rTMS. The purpose of the analysis was to determine how the following factors affected SRTT performance: (1) stimulated brain regions, (2) rTMS protocols, (3) stimulated hemisphere, (4) timing of the stimulation, (5) SRTT sequence properties, and (6) other methodological features. The primary motor cortex (M1) and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) were found to be the most promising stimulation targets. Low-frequency protocols over M1 usually weaken performance, but the results are less consistent for the DLPFC. This review provides a comprehensive discussion about the behavioral effects of six factors that are crucial in designing future studies to modulate sequence learning with rTMS. Future studies may preferentially and synergistically combine functional neuroimaging with rTMS to adequately link the rTMS-induced network effects with behavioral findings, which are crucial to develop a unified cognitive model of visuomotor sequence learning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive and Neural Mechanisms of Implicit Learning)

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21 pages, 2233 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Novel Approach to Assessing Infant and Child Mental Rotation

by Aaron G. Beckner, Mary Katz, David N. Tompkins, Annika T. Voss, Deaven Winebrake, Vanessa LoBue, Lisa M. Oakes and Marianella Casasola

J. Intell. 2023, 11(8), 168; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11080168 - 20 Aug 2023

Viewed by 1340

Abstract

Mental rotation is a critically important, early developing spatial skill that is related to other spatial cognitive abilities. Understanding the early development of this skill, however, requires a developmentally appropriate assessment that can be used with infants, toddlers, and young children. We present [...] Read more.

Mental rotation is a critically important, early developing spatial skill that is related to other spatial cognitive abilities. Understanding the early development of this skill, however, requires a developmentally appropriate assessment that can be used with infants, toddlers, and young children. We present here a new eye-tracking task that uses a staircase procedure to assess mental rotation in 12-, 24-, and 36-month-old children (N = 41). To ensure that all children understood the task, the session began with training and practice, in which the children learned to fixate which of two houses a giraffe, facing either left or right, would approach. The adaptive two-up, one-down staircase procedure assessed the children’s ability to fixate the correct house when the giraffe was rotated in 30° (up) or 15° (down) increments. The procedure was successful, with most children showing evidence of mental rotation. In addition, the children were less likely to succeed as the angle of rotation increased, and the older children succeeded at higher angles of rotation than the younger children, replicating previous findings with other procedures. The present study contributes a new paradigm that can assess the development of mental rotation in young children and holds promise for yielding insights into individual differences in mental rotation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Intelligence and Learning)

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31 pages, 17511 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Underappreciated Benefits of Interleaving for Category Learning

by Lan Anh Do and Ayanna K. Thomas

J. Intell. 2023, 11(8), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11080153 - 02 Aug 2023

Viewed by 1289

Abstract

The present study examined the effects of study schedule (interleaving vs. blocking) and feature descriptions on category learning and metacognitive predictions of learning. Across three experiments, participants studied exemplars from different rock categories and later had to classify novel exemplars. Rule-based and information-based [...] Read more.

The present study examined the effects of study schedule (interleaving vs. blocking) and feature descriptions on category learning and metacognitive predictions of learning. Across three experiments, participants studied exemplars from different rock categories and later had to classify novel exemplars. Rule-based and information-based categorization was also manipulated by selecting rock sub-categories for which the optimal strategy was the one that aligned with the extraction of a simple rule, or the one that required integration of information that may be difficult to describe verbally. We observed consistent benefits of interleaving over blocking on rock classification, which generalized to both rule-based (Experiment 1) and information-integration learning (Experiments 1–3). However, providing feature descriptions enhanced classification accuracy only when the stated features were diagnostic of category membership, indicating that their benefits were limited to rule-based learning (Experiment 1) and did not generalize to information-integration learning (Experiments 1–3). Furthermore, our examination of participants’ metacognitive predictions demonstrated that participants were not aware of the benefits of interleaving on category learning. Additionally, providing feature descriptions led to higher predictions of categorization even when no significant benefits on actual performance were exhibited. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Intersection of Metacognition and Intelligence)

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23 pages, 1603 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Blocked Presentation Leads Participants to Overutilize Domain Familiarity as a Cue for Judgments of Learning (JOLs)

by Michael J. Serra and Lindzi L. Shanks

J. Intell. 2023, 11(7), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11070142 - 17 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1220

Abstract

The accuracy of judgments of learning (JOLs) is vital for efficient self-regulated learning. We examined a situation in which participants overutilize their prior knowledge of a topic (“domain familiarity”) as a basis for JOLs, resulting in substantial overconfidence in topics they know the [...] Read more.

The accuracy of judgments of learning (JOLs) is vital for efficient self-regulated learning. We examined a situation in which participants overutilize their prior knowledge of a topic (“domain familiarity”) as a basis for JOLs, resulting in substantial overconfidence in topics they know the most about. College students rank ordered their knowledge across ten different domains and studied, judged, and then completed a test on facts from those domains. Recall and JOLs were linearly related to self-rated knowledge, as was overconfidence: participants were most overconfident for topics they knew more about, indicating the overutilization of domain familiarity as a cue for JOLs. We examined aspects of the task that might contribute to this pattern, including the order of the task phases and whether participants studied the facts blocked by topic. Although participants used domain familiarity as a cue for JOLs regardless of task design, we found that studying facts from multiple topics blocked by topic led them to overutilize this cue. In contrast, whether participants completed the rank ordering before studying the facts or received a warning about this tendency did not alter the pattern. The relative accuracy of participants’ JOLs, however, was not related to domain familiarity under any conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Intersection of Metacognition and Intelligence)

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44 pages, 1085 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Non-Cognitive Specificities of Intellectually Gifted Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review of the Literature

by Emma Tourreix, Maud Besançon and Corentin Gonthier

J. Intell. 2023, 11(7), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11070141 - 15 Jul 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5616

Abstract

For several years, there was a growing interest in intellectual giftedness and in particular in the non-cognitive specificities of gifted individuals. This topic attracted much public attention and sometimes led to contradictions with the scientific literature. The current review synthesizes a broad set [...] Read more.

For several years, there was a growing interest in intellectual giftedness and in particular in the non-cognitive specificities of gifted individuals. This topic attracted much public attention and sometimes led to contradictions with the scientific literature. The current review synthesizes a broad set of results related to non-cognitive specificities of intellectual gifted in children and adolescents. This synthesis of scientific research on giftedness and its associated non-cognitive features does not support the conclusion that there is a stable profile across gifted individuals that would consistently separate them from non-gifted individuals. A few specificities in some areas are noted, but they are not necessarily being systematic. These specificities often turn out to be in favor of gifted youth, contrary to the view sometimes defended in the general public that gifted individuals suffer from major everyday difficulties. Finally, methodological issues are listed regarding the designs of existing studies, with recommendations for future research in the field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Century beyond Terman, 50 Years after Marland: Knowns and Unknowns about Cognitive Excellence)

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19 pages, 839 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceEssay

Within-Individual Variation in Cognitive Performance Is Not Noise: Why and How Cognitive Assessments Should Examine Within-Person Performance

by Arabella Charlotte Vaughan and Damian Patrick Birney

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060110 - 02 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1587

Abstract

Despite evidence that it exists, short-term within-individual variability in cognitive performance has largely been ignored as a meaningful component of human cognitive ability. In this article, we build a case for why this within-individual variability should not be viewed as mere measurement error [...] Read more.

Despite evidence that it exists, short-term within-individual variability in cognitive performance has largely been ignored as a meaningful component of human cognitive ability. In this article, we build a case for why this within-individual variability should not be viewed as mere measurement error and why it should be construed as a meaningful component of an individual’s cognitive abilities. We argue that in a demanding and rapidly changing modern world, between-individual analysis of single-occasion cognitive test scores does not account for the full range of within-individual cognitive performance variation that is implicated in successful typical cognitive performance. We propose that short-term repeated-measures paradigms (e.g., the experience sampling method (ESM)) be used to develop a process account of why individuals with similar cognitive ability scores differ in their actual performance in typical environments. Finally, we outline considerations for researchers when adapting this paradigm for cognitive assessment and present some initial findings from two studies in our lab that piloted the use of ESM to assess within-individual cognitive performance variation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Human Intelligence—State of the Art in the 2020s)

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28 pages, 423 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Individual Responses versus Aggregate Group-Level Results: Examining the Strength of Evidence for Growth Mindset Interventions on Academic Performance

by Mariel K. Barnett and Brooke N. Macnamara

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060104 - 30 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1796

Abstract

Mindset theory assumes that students’ beliefs about their intelligence—whether these are fixed or can grow—affects students’ academic performance. Based on this assumption, mindset theorists have developed growth mindset interventions to teach students that their intelligence or another attribute can be developed, with the [...] Read more.

Mindset theory assumes that students’ beliefs about their intelligence—whether these are fixed or can grow—affects students’ academic performance. Based on this assumption, mindset theorists have developed growth mindset interventions to teach students that their intelligence or another attribute can be developed, with the goal of improving academic outcomes. Though many papers have reported benefits from growth mindset interventions, others have reported no effects or even detrimental effects. Recently, proponents of mindset theory have called for a “heterogeneity revolution” to understand when growth mindset interventions are effective and when—and for whom—they are not. We sought to examine the whole picture of heterogeneity of treatment effects, including benefits, lack of impacts, and potential detriments of growth mindset interventions on academic performance. We used a recently proposed approach that considers persons as effect sizes; this approach can reveal individual-level heterogeneity often lost in aggregate data analyses. Across three papers, we find that this approach reveals substantial individual-level heterogeneity unobservable at the group level, with many students and teachers exhibiting mindset and performance outcomes that run counter to the authors’ claims. Understanding and reporting heterogeneity, including benefits, null effects, and detriments, will lead to better guidance for educators and policymakers considering the role of growth mindset interventions in schools. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Skill Acquisition, Expertise, and Achievement)

16 pages, 1131 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Working Memory Constrains Long-Term Memory in Children and Adults: Memory of Objects and Bindings

by Alicia Forsberg, Dominic Guitard, Eryn J. Adams, Duangporn Pattanakul and Nelson Cowan

J. Intell. 2023, 11(5), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11050094 - 15 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2301

Abstract

We explored how individual and age-related differences in working memory (WM) capacity affected subsequent long-term memory (LTM) retrieval. Unlike past studies, we tested WM and LTM not only for items, but also for item–color bindings. Our sample included 82 elementary school children and [...] Read more.

We explored how individual and age-related differences in working memory (WM) capacity affected subsequent long-term memory (LTM) retrieval. Unlike past studies, we tested WM and LTM not only for items, but also for item–color bindings. Our sample included 82 elementary school children and 42 young adults. The participants performed a WM task with images of unique everyday items presented sequentially at varying set sizes in different colors. Later, we tested LTM for items and item–color bindings from the WM task. The WM load during encoding constrained LTM, and participants with a higher WM capacity retrieved more items in the LTM test. Even when accounting for young children’s poor item memory by considering only the items that they did remember, they exhibited an exacerbated difficulty with remembering item–color bindings in WM. Their LTM binding performance, however, as a proportion of remembered objects, was comparable to that of older children and adults. The WM binding performance was better during sub-span encoding loads, but with no clear transfer of this benefit to LTM. Overall, LTM item memory performance was constrained by individual and age-related WM limitations, but with mixed consequences for binding. We discuss the theoretical, practical, and developmental implications of this WM-to-LTM bottleneck. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Working Memory and Attention)

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22 pages, 820 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Structure of Cognitive Abilities and Associations with Problem Behaviors in Early Adolescence: An Analysis of Baseline Data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study

by Dawn Michele Moore and Andrew R. A. Conway

J. Intell. 2023, 11(5), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11050090 - 10 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2419

Abstract

Using baseline data (n = 9875) from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study examining children aged 9 to 10 years, the current analyses included: (1) exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of neurocognitive measures administered during baseline collection, [...] Read more.

Using baseline data (n = 9875) from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study examining children aged 9 to 10 years, the current analyses included: (1) exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of neurocognitive measures administered during baseline collection, and (2) linear regression analyses on the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), controlling for demographic and socioeconomic factors. The neurocognitive tasks measured episodic memory, executive function (EF; attention), language skills, processing speed, working memory, visuospatial ability, and reasoning. The CBCL included composite scores of parent-reported internalizing, externalizing, and stress-related behavior problems. The study reported here serves as an extension of prior research using a principal components analysis (PCA) of the ABCD baseline data. We propose an alternative solution using factor analysis. Analyses revealed a three-factor structure: verbal ability (VA), executive function/processing speed (EF/PS), and working memory/episodic memory (WM/EM). These factors were significantly correlated with the CBCL scores, albeit with small effect sizes. These findings provide a novel three-factor solution to the structure of cognitive abilities measured in the ABCD Study, offering new insights into the association between cognitive function and problem behaviors in early adolescence. Full article

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31 pages, 4185 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Knowledge Representations: Individual Differences in Novel Problem Solving

by Megan J. Raden and Andrew F. Jarosz

J. Intell. 2023, 11(4), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11040077 - 21 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1110

Abstract

The present study investigates how the quality of knowledge representations contributes to rule transfer in a problem-solving context and how working memory capacity (WMC) might contribute to the subsequent failure or success in transferring the relevant information. Participants were trained on individual figural [...] Read more.

The present study investigates how the quality of knowledge representations contributes to rule transfer in a problem-solving context and how working memory capacity (WMC) might contribute to the subsequent failure or success in transferring the relevant information. Participants were trained on individual figural analogy rules and then asked to rate the subjective similarity of the rules to determine how abstract their rule representations were. This rule representation score, along with other measures (WMC and fluid intelligence measures), was used to predict accuracy on a set of novel figural analogy test items, of which half included only the trained rules, and half were comprised of entirely new rules. The results indicated that the training improved performance on the test items and that WMC largely explained the ability to transfer rules. Although the rule representation scores did not predict accuracy on the trained items, rule representation scores did uniquely explain performance on the figural analogies task, even after accounting for WMC and fluid intelligence. These results indicate that WMC plays a large role in knowledge transfer, even when transferring to a more complex problem-solving context, and that rule representations may be important for novel problem solving. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Differential Psychology and Individual Differences in Intelligence)

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30 pages, 2299 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Task Switching: On the Relation of Cognitive Flexibility with Cognitive Capacity

by Florian Schmitz and Raimund J. Krämer

J. Intell. 2023, 11(4), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11040068 - 30 Mar 2023

Viewed by 4359

Abstract

The task-switching paradigm is deemed a measure of cognitive flexibility. Previous research has demonstrated that individual differences in task-switch costs are moderately inversely related to cognitive ability. However, current theories emphasize multiple component processes of task switching, such as task-set preparation and task-set [...] Read more.

The task-switching paradigm is deemed a measure of cognitive flexibility. Previous research has demonstrated that individual differences in task-switch costs are moderately inversely related to cognitive ability. However, current theories emphasize multiple component processes of task switching, such as task-set preparation and task-set inertia. The relations of task-switching processes with cognitive ability were investigated in the current study. Participants completed a task-switching paradigm with geometric forms and a visuospatial working memory capacity (WMC) task. The task-switch effect was decomposed with the diffusion model. Effects of task-switching and response congruency were estimated as latent differences using structural equation modeling. Their magnitudes and relations with visuospatial WMC were investigated. Effects in the means of parameter estimates replicated previous findings, namely increased non-decision time in task-switch trials. Further, task switches and response incongruency had independent effects on drift rates, reflecting their differential effects on task readiness. Findings obtained with the figural tasks employed in this study revealed that WMC was inversely related to the task-switch effect in non-decision time. Relations with drift rates were inconsistent. Finally, WMC was moderately inversely related to response caution. These findings suggest that more able participants either needed less time for task-set preparation or that they invested less time for task-set preparation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive Flexibility: Concepts, Issues and Assessment)

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17 pages, 410 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Language: Its Origin and Ongoing Evolution

by Ilia Markov, Kseniia Kharitonova and Elena L. Grigorenko

J. Intell. 2023, 11(4), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11040061 - 28 Mar 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4728

Abstract

With the present paper, we sought to use research findings to illustrate the following thesis: the evolution of language follows the principles of human evolution. We argued that language does not exist for its own sake, it is one of a multitude of [...] Read more.

With the present paper, we sought to use research findings to illustrate the following thesis: the evolution of language follows the principles of human evolution. We argued that language does not exist for its own sake, it is one of a multitude of skills that developed to achieve a shared communicative goal, and all its features are reflective of this. Ongoing emerging language adaptations strive to better fit the present state of the human species. Theories of language have evolved from a single-modality to multimodal, from human-specific to usage-based and goal-driven. We proposed that language should be viewed as a multitude of communication techniques that have developed and are developing in response to selective pressure. The precise nature of language is shaped by the needs of the species (arguably, uniquely H. sapiens) utilizing it, and the emergence of new situational adaptations, as well as new forms and types of human language, demonstrates that language includes an act driven by a communicative goal. This article serves as an overview of the current state of psycholinguistic research on the topic of language evolution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding Higher-Order Cognitive Abilities and Their Development in the Anthropocene)

20 pages, 1309 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Role of Semantic Associations as a Metacognitive Cue in Creative Idea Generation

by Yoed N. Kenett, Noam Gooz and Rakefet Ackerman

J. Intell. 2023, 11(4), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11040059 - 27 Mar 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1983

Abstract

Is my idea creative? This question directs investing in companies and choosing a research agenda. Following previous research, we focus on the originality of ideas and consider their association with self-assessments of idea generators regarding their own originality. We operationalize the originality score [...] Read more.

Is my idea creative? This question directs investing in companies and choosing a research agenda. Following previous research, we focus on the originality of ideas and consider their association with self-assessments of idea generators regarding their own originality. We operationalize the originality score as the frequency (%) of each idea within a sample of participants and originality judgment as the self-assessment of this frequency. Initial evidence suggests that originality scores and originality judgments are produced by separate processes. As a result, originality judgments are prone to biases. So far, heuristic cues that lead to such biases are hardly known. We used methods from computational linguistics to examine the semantic distance as a potential heuristic cue underlying originality judgments. We examined the extent to which the semantic distance would contribute additional explanatory value in predicting originality scores and originality judgments, above and beyond cues known from previous research. In Experiment 1, we re-analyzed previous data that compared originality scores and originality judgments after adding the semantic distance of the generated ideas from the stimuli. We found that the semantic distance contributed to the gap between originality scores and originality judgments. In Experiment 2, we manipulated the examples given in task instructions to prime participants with two levels of idea originality and two levels of semantic distance. We replicated Experiment 1 in finding the semantic distance as a biasing factor for originality judgments. In addition, we found differences among the conditions in the extent of the bias. This study highlights the semantic distance as an unacknowledged metacognitive cue and demonstrates its biasing power for originality judgments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metareasoning: Theoretical and Methodological Developments)

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14 pages, 674 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Generalization of Skill for a Working Memory Recognition Procedure in Children: The Benefit of Starting with Easy Materials

by Chenye Bao and Nelson Cowan

J. Intell. 2023, 11(3), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11030056 - 17 Mar 2023

Viewed by 1500

Abstract

When children practice a new task, they need to learn both the task procedure and the materials tested. It is often unclear if improvements with practice reflect learning of the task procedure or familiarity with the materials. We sought to examine learning of [...] Read more.

When children practice a new task, they need to learn both the task procedure and the materials tested. It is often unclear if improvements with practice reflect learning of the task procedure or familiarity with the materials. We sought to examine learning of the task procedure by switching from one set of materials to another in a working memory recognition task. We recruited 70 children (34 female, M = 11.27 years, SD = 0.62, ranging from 10.08 to 12.39) in the United States who were to remember sequences of orientations and of shapes for recognition immediately following the list. Half of the children began with orientation, an easier task, and the other half began with difficult-to-name shapes, a harder task. When children began with the easier task, the acquisition of the recognition task skill in the easy condition transferred to the more difficult task, optimizing the mean performance across tasks. Transfer was less potent when children began with the more difficult task. The results showed that sufficient practice is crucial to avoid poor initial performance, which might be important for the student’s rate of progress and task engagement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Working Memory and Attention)

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16 pages, 621 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Measuring Domain-Specific Knowledge: From Bach to Fibonacci

by Marianna Massimilla Rusche and Matthias Ziegler

J. Intell. 2023, 11(3), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11030047 - 28 Feb 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1827

Abstract

Along with crystallized intelligence (Gc), domain-specific knowledge (Gkn) is an important ability within the nomological net of acquired knowledge. Although Gkn has been shown to predict important life outcomes, only a few standardized tests measuring Gkn exist, especially for the adult population. Complicating [...] Read more.

Along with crystallized intelligence (Gc), domain-specific knowledge (Gkn) is an important ability within the nomological net of acquired knowledge. Although Gkn has been shown to predict important life outcomes, only a few standardized tests measuring Gkn exist, especially for the adult population. Complicating things, Gkn tests from different cultural circles cannot simply be translated as they need to be culture specific. Hence, this study aimed to develop a Gkn test culturally sensitive to a German population and to provide initial evidence for the resulting scores’ psychometric quality. Existing Gkn tests often mirror a school curriculum. We aimed to operationalize Gkn not solely based upon a typical curriculum to investigate a research question regarding the curriculum dependence of the resulting Gkn structure. A set of newly developed items from a broad range of knowledge categories was presented online to 1450 participants divided into a high (fluid intelligence, Gf) Gf (n = 415) and an unselected Gf subsample (n = 1035). Results support the notion of a hierarchical model comparable to the one curriculum-based tests scores have, with one factor at the top and three narrower factors below (Humanities, Science, Civics) for which each can be divided into smaller knowledge facets. Besides this initial evidence regarding structural validity, the scale scores’ reliability estimates are reported, and criterion validity-related evidence based on a known-groups design is provided. Results indicate the psychometric quality of the scores and are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Human Intelligence—State of the Art in the 2020s)

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30 pages, 1603 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Carroll’s Three-Stratum (3S) Cognitive Ability Theory at 30 Years: Impact, 3S-CHC Theory Clarification, Structural Replication, and Cognitive–Achievement Psychometric Network Analysis Extension

by Kevin S. McGrew

J. Intell. 2023, 11(2), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11020032 - 06 Feb 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4469

Abstract

Carroll’s treatise on the structure of human cognitive abilities is a milestone in psychometric intelligence research. Thirty years later, Carroll’s work continues to influence research on intelligence theories and the development and interpretation of intelligence tests. A historical review of the relations between [...] Read more.

Carroll’s treatise on the structure of human cognitive abilities is a milestone in psychometric intelligence research. Thirty years later, Carroll’s work continues to influence research on intelligence theories and the development and interpretation of intelligence tests. A historical review of the relations between the 3S and CHC theories necessitates the recommendation that the theories of Cattell, Horn, and Carroll be reframed as a family of obliquely correlated CHC theories—not a single CHC theory. Next, a previously unpublished Carroll exploratory factor analysis of 46 cognitive and achievement tests is presented. A complimentary bifactor analysis is presented that reinforces Carroll’s conclusion that his 3S model more accurately represents the structure of human intelligence than two prominent alternative models. Finally, a Carroll-recommended higher-stratum psychometric network analysis (PNA) of CHC cognitive, reading, and math variables is presented. The PNA results demonstrate how PNA can complement factor analysis and serve as a framework for identifying and empirically evaluating cognitive–achievement causal relations and mechanisms (e.g., developmental cascade and investment theories), with an eye toward improved cognitive–achievement intervention research. It is believed that Carroll, given his long-standing interest in school learning, would welcome the integration of theory-driven factor and PNA research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Three-Stratum Theory at 30: Theory, Measurement, and Application)

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22 pages, 839 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Construct Validity of Intellect and Openness as Distinct Aspects of Personality through Differential Associations with Reaction Time

by Emily A. Willoughby, Yuri Kim, James J. Lee and Colin G. DeYoung

J. Intell. 2023, 11(2), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11020030 - 01 Feb 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2523

Abstract

The construct validity of group factor models of personality, which are typically derived from factor analysis of questionnaire items, relies on the ability of each factor to predict meaningful and differentiated real-world outcomes. In a sample of 481 participants, we used the Big [...] Read more.

The construct validity of group factor models of personality, which are typically derived from factor analysis of questionnaire items, relies on the ability of each factor to predict meaningful and differentiated real-world outcomes. In a sample of 481 participants, we used the Big Five Aspect Scales (BFAS) personality questionnaire, two laboratory-measured reaction time (RT) tasks, and a short-form test of cognitive ability (ICAR-16) to test the hypothesis that the Intellect and Openness aspects of Big Five Openness to Experience differentially correlate with reaction time moments. We found that higher scores on the Intellect aspect significantly correlate with faster and less variable response times, while no such association is observed for the Openness aspect. Further, we found that this advantage lies solely in the decisional, but not perceptual, stage of information processing; no other Big Five aspect showed a similar pattern of results. In sum, these findings represent the largest and most comprehensive study to date on personality factors and reaction time, and the first to demonstrate a mechanistic validation of BFAS Intellect through a differential pattern of associations with RT and Big Five personality aspects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Personality and Individual Differences)

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22 pages, 482 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Actively Open-Minded Thinking and Its Measurement

by Keith E. Stanovich and Maggie E. Toplak

J. Intell. 2023, 11(2), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11020027 - 28 Jan 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 8354

Abstract

Actively open-minded thinking (AOT) is measured by items that tap the willingness to consider alternative opinions, sensitivity to evidence contradictory to current beliefs, the willingness to postpone closure, and reflective thought. AOT scales are strong predictors of performance on heuristics and biases tasks [...] Read more.

Actively open-minded thinking (AOT) is measured by items that tap the willingness to consider alternative opinions, sensitivity to evidence contradictory to current beliefs, the willingness to postpone closure, and reflective thought. AOT scales are strong predictors of performance on heuristics and biases tasks and of the avoidance of reasoning traps such as superstitious thinking and belief in conspiracy theories. Nevertheless, AOT is most commonly measured with questionnaires rather than performance indicators. Questionnaire contamination becomes even more of a danger as the AOT concept is expanded into new areas such as the study of fake news, misinformation, ideology, and civic attitudes. We review our 25-year history of studying the AOT concept and developing our own AOT scale. We present a 13-item scale that both is brief and accommodates many previous criticisms and refinements. We include a discussion of why AOT scales are such good predictors of performance on heuristics and biases tasks. We conclude that it is because such scales tap important processes of cognitive decoupling and decontextualization that modernity increasingly requires. We conclude by discussing the paradox that although AOT scales are potent predictors of performance on most rational thinking tasks, they do not predict the avoidance of myside thinking, even though it is virtually the quintessence of the AOT concept. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metareasoning: Theoretical and Methodological Developments)

33 pages, 2229 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Psychometric Network Analysis of CHC Intelligence Measures: Implications for Research, Theory, and Interpretation of Broad CHC Scores “Beyond g”

by Kevin S. McGrew, W. Joel Schneider, Scott L. Decker and Okan Bulut

J. Intell. 2023, 11(1), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11010019 - 16 Jan 2023

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6651

Abstract

For over a century, the structure of intelligence has been dominated by factor analytic methods that presume tests are indicators of latent entities (e.g., general intelligence or g). Recently, psychometric network methods and theories (e.g., process overlap theory; dynamic mutualism) have provided [...] Read more.

For over a century, the structure of intelligence has been dominated by factor analytic methods that presume tests are indicators of latent entities (e.g., general intelligence or g). Recently, psychometric network methods and theories (e.g., process overlap theory; dynamic mutualism) have provided alternatives to g-centric factor models. However, few studies have investigated contemporary cognitive measures using network methods. We apply a Gaussian graphical network model to the age 9–19 standardization sample of the Woodcock–Johnson Tests of Cognitive Ability—Fourth Edition. Results support the primary broad abilities from the Cattell–Horn–Carroll (CHC) theory and suggest that the working memory–attentional control complex may be central to understanding a CHC network model of intelligence. Supplementary multidimensional scaling analyses indicate the existence of possible higher-order dimensions (PPIK; triadic theory; System I-II cognitive processing) as well as separate learning and retrieval aspects of long-term memory. Overall, the network approach offers a viable alternative to factor models with a g-centric bias (i.e., bifactor models) that have led to erroneous conclusions regarding the utility of broad CHC scores in test interpretation beyond the full-scale IQ, g. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Human Intelligence—State of the Art in the 2020s)

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16 pages, 763 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The ACT Predicts Academic Performance—But Why?

by Alexander P. Burgoyne, Kelly M. Stec, Kimberly M. Fenn and David Z. Hambrick

J. Intell. 2023, 11(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11010009 - 03 Jan 2023

Viewed by 2177

Abstract

Scores on the ACT college entrance exam predict college grades to a statistically and practically significant degree, but what explains this predictive validity? The most obvious possibility is general intelligence—or psychometric “g”. However, inconsistent with this hypothesis, even when independent measures [...] Read more.

Scores on the ACT college entrance exam predict college grades to a statistically and practically significant degree, but what explains this predictive validity? The most obvious possibility is general intelligence—or psychometric “g”. However, inconsistent with this hypothesis, even when independent measures of g are statistically controlled, ACT scores still positively predict college grades. Here, in a study of 182 students enrolled in two Introductory Psychology courses, we tested whether pre-course knowledge, motivation, interest, and/or personality characteristics such as grit and self-control could explain the relationship between ACT and course performance after controlling for g. Surprisingly, none could. We speculate about what other factors might explain the robust relationship between ACT scores and academic performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Skill Acquisition, Expertise, and Achievement)

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14 pages, 628 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Learners with Low Working Memory Capacity Benefit More from the Presence of an Instructor’s Face in Video Lectures

by Yuyang Zhang, Jing Yang and Zhisheng (Edward) Wen

J. Intell. 2023, 11(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11010005 - 27 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4534

Abstract

This current study explores the influence of learners’ working memory capacity (WMC) on the facilitation effect of an instructor’s presence during video lectures. Sixty-four undergraduates were classified into high and low WMC groups based on their performance in an operation span task. They [...] Read more.

This current study explores the influence of learners’ working memory capacity (WMC) on the facilitation effect of an instructor’s presence during video lectures. Sixty-four undergraduates were classified into high and low WMC groups based on their performance in an operation span task. They watched three types of video lectures on unfamiliar topics in a random order: video lectures with an instructor’s voiceover but without presence (VN), video lectures with the instructor’s face picture (VP), and video lectures with the same instructor talking (VV). We collected their eye movement data during the video lectures and their learning performance in the comprehension tests following each video. Two-way ANOVA and post-hoc analyses showed that the instructor’s presence significantly improved comprehension performance in only the low WMC group. They allocated more attention to the instructor’s face picture and talking head than the high WMC group. Our results highlight the value of the instructor’s presence as a social cue in video lectures, which is particularly beneficial for learners with a low WMC. Full article

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19 pages, 2545 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Alpha Suppression Is Associated with the Tip-of-the-Tongue (TOT) State Whereas Alpha Expression Is Associated with Knowing That One Does Not Know

by Edmund Qian-Long Shen, David Friedman, Paul Alexander Bloom and Janet Metcalfe

J. Intell. 2022, 10(4), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence10040121 - 08 Dec 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2120

Abstract

The tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) state is a spontaneously occurring metacognitive state that indicates that the answer to a query is almost, but not quite, at hand, i.e., that resolution is imminent. Since the time of William James, a distinctive feeling of nagging frustration has [...] Read more.

The tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) state is a spontaneously occurring metacognitive state that indicates that the answer to a query is almost, but not quite, at hand, i.e., that resolution is imminent. Since the time of William James, a distinctive feeling of nagging frustration has been observed to be associated with TOT states. On a more positive note, TOT states are also associated with intense goal-directed curiosity and with a strong desire to know that translates into successful mental action. The present study showed that prior to the presentation of resolving feedback to verbal queries—if the individual was in a TOT state—alpha suppression was in evidence in the EEG. This alpha suppression appears to be a marker of a spontaneously occurring, conscious, and highly motivating goal-directed internal metacognitive state. At the same time, alpha expression in the same time period was associated with the feeling of not knowing, indicating a more discursive state. Both alpha and alpha suppression were observed broadly across centro-parietal scalp electrodes and disappeared immediately upon presentation of the resolving feedback. Analyses indicated that the occurrence of alpha suppression was associated with participants’ verbal affirmations of being in a TOT state, which is also related to subsequent expression of a late positivity when feedback is provided, and to enhanced memory. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metareasoning: Theoretical and Methodological Developments)

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15 pages, 520 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceCase Report

Bored, Distracted, and Confused: Emotions That Promote Creativity and Learning in a 28-Month-Old Child Using an iPad

by Shiva Khalaf, Hechmi Kilani, Melissa B. Razo and Elena L. Grigorenko

J. Intell. 2022, 10(4), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence10040118 - 02 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2550

Abstract

Digital technology is increasingly becoming a part of daily life, including the lives of children. Portable digital devices are omnipresent and integrated into activities that did not previously require them. The related skills are often referred to as 21st-century skills, constituting a new [...] Read more.

Digital technology is increasingly becoming a part of daily life, including the lives of children. Portable digital devices are omnipresent and integrated into activities that did not previously require them. The related skills are often referred to as 21st-century skills, constituting a new type of literacy: digital literacy. These devices and skills bring unique, innovative elements to the learning experience; yet, we do not know the extent to which behavior, emotion, and socialization are affected by such experience. For preschool-aged children, interactions with digital devices and games for the purposes of learning can lead to a state of confusion and boredom, an emotional driving force that may generate mind-wandering and exploration, which, in turn, may facilitate learning. Our interdisciplinary observational case study examined the behavioral patterns linked to digital game-based learning (DGBL) by observing how a child’s mind-wandering contributed to iPad use when they were allowed to freely engage with the device and explore independently during the learning process. Building on a previous case study of a 28-month-old boy, “Ryan”, we evaluated the effects of bouts of mind-wandering as he played various DGBL applications (apps) by examining the length of time that Ryan exhibited relevant affective and behavioral states, iPad manipulations, and social interaction during the playtime. Ryan’s interactions with the iPad were video recorded for five weeks, and the video footage was coded using a detailed rubric. The results indicated that negative emotions, such as boredom, distraction, and confusion, if coupled with attentiveness and persistence, led to positive mind-wandering and positive learning outcomes. However, when boredom was coupled with frustration, it led to negative mind-wandering and a lack of learning outcomes. In conclusion, our study presents evidence that DGBL apps may improve learning by capitalizing on positive and avoiding negative mind-wandering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Creativity, Intelligence, and Collaboration in 21st Century Education: An Interdisciplinary Challenge)

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16 pages, 2653 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Pupillometry as a Window into Young Children’s Sustained Attention

by Viridiana L. Benitez and Matthew K. Robison

J. Intell. 2022, 10(4), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence10040107 - 16 Nov 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2210

Abstract

Sustained attention is critical to cognition, social competence, and academic success. Importantly, sustained attention undergoes significant development over the early childhood period. Yet, how sustained attention fluctuates over time on task has not been clearly outlined, particularly in young children. In this study, [...] Read more.

Sustained attention is critical to cognition, social competence, and academic success. Importantly, sustained attention undergoes significant development over the early childhood period. Yet, how sustained attention fluctuates over time on task has not been clearly outlined, particularly in young children. In this study, we provide a first test of whether the pupillary response can be used as an indicator of moment-to-moment sustained attention over time on task in young children. Children aged 5 to 7 years (N = 41) completed a psychomotor vigilance task, where they were asked to press a button as fast as possible at the onset of a target stimulus. We measured reaction times over the course of the task, pupil size prior to target onset (baseline pupil size), and pupil size in response to target onset (task-evoked pupil size). The results showed a stereotypical vigilance decrement in children’s response times: as time on task increased, reaction times increased. Critically, children’s task-evoked pupil size decreased over time on task, while no such change was present in baseline pupil size. These results suggest that young children’s waning sustained attention may be linked to a decrease in alertness while overall arousal is maintained. We discuss the importance of leveraging pupillometry to understand the mechanisms of sustained attention over individuals and development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Working Memory and Attention)

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18 pages, 557 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Fluid Intelligence Emerges from Representing Relations

by Adam Chuderski

J. Intell. 2022, 10(3), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence10030051 - 02 Aug 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2953

Abstract

Based on recent findings in cognitive neuroscience and psychology as well as computational models of working memory and reasoning, I argue that fluid intelligence (fluid reasoning) can amount to representing in the mind the key relation(s) for the task at hand. Effective representation [...] Read more.

Based on recent findings in cognitive neuroscience and psychology as well as computational models of working memory and reasoning, I argue that fluid intelligence (fluid reasoning) can amount to representing in the mind the key relation(s) for the task at hand. Effective representation of relations allows for enormous flexibility of thinking but depends on the validity and robustness of the dynamic patterns of argument–object (role–filler) bindings, which encode relations in the brain. Such a reconceptualization of the fluid intelligence construct allows for the simplification and purification of its models, tests, and potential brain mechanisms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive Flexibility: Concepts, Issues and Assessment)

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29 pages, 2064 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Intelligence IS Cognitive Flexibility: Why Multilevel Models of Within-Individual Processes Are Needed to Realise This

by Damian P. Birney and Jens F. Beckmann

J. Intell. 2022, 10(3), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence10030049 - 01 Aug 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2968

Abstract

Despite substantial evidence for the link between an individual’s intelligence and successful life outcomes, questions about what defines intelligence have remained the focus of heated dispute. The most common approach to understanding intelligence has been to investigate what performance on tests of intellect [...] Read more.

Despite substantial evidence for the link between an individual’s intelligence and successful life outcomes, questions about what defines intelligence have remained the focus of heated dispute. The most common approach to understanding intelligence has been to investigate what performance on tests of intellect is and is not associated with. This psychometric approach, based on correlations and factor analysis is deficient. In this review, we aim to substantiate why classic psychometrics which focus on between-person accounts will necessarily provide a limited account of intelligence until theoretical considerations of within-person accounts are incorporated. First, we consider the impact of entrenched psychometric presumptions that support the status quo and impede alternative views. Second, we review the importance of process-theories, which are critical for any serious attempt to build a within-person account of intelligence. Third, features of dynamic tasks are reviewed, and we outline how static tasks can be modified to target within-person processes. Finally, we explain how multilevel models are conceptually and psychometrically well-suited to building and testing within-individual notions of intelligence, which at its core, we argue is cognitive flexibility. We conclude by describing an application of these ideas in the context of microworlds as a case study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive Flexibility: Concepts, Issues and Assessment)

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10 pages, 313 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Selecting for Learning Potential: Is Implicit Learning the New Cognitive Ability?

by Luke M. Montuori and Lara Montefiori

J. Intell. 2022, 10(2), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence10020024 - 15 Apr 2022

Viewed by 3639

Abstract

For decades, the field of workplace selection has been dominated by evidence that cognitive ability is the most important factor in predicting performance. Meta-analyses detailing the contributions of a wide-range of factors to workplace performance show that cognitive ability’s contribution is partly mediated [...] Read more.

For decades, the field of workplace selection has been dominated by evidence that cognitive ability is the most important factor in predicting performance. Meta-analyses detailing the contributions of a wide-range of factors to workplace performance show that cognitive ability’s contribution is partly mediated by the learning of task-relevant skills and job-specific declarative knowledge. Further, there is evidence to suggest that this relationship is a function of task complexity, and partially mediated by learning performance in workplace induction and training activities. Simultaneously, evidence is mounting that stable individual differences in implicit learning exist, which are at least partially independent of traditional measures of intelligence. In this article we provide an overview of recent advances in our understanding of implicit learning, outline some of the advantages offered by its measurement, and highlight some of the challenges associated with its adoption as a measure of interest. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligence and the Future of Work: Assessment, Relevance and Application of Cognitive and Other Abilities in the Age of Artificial Intelligence)

21 pages, 459 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Student Characteristics, Institutional Factors, and Outcomes in Higher Education and Beyond: An Analysis of Standardized Test Scores and Other Factors at the Institutional Level with School Rankings and Salary

by Jonathan Wai and Bich Tran

J. Intell. 2022, 10(2), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence10020022 - 01 Apr 2022

Viewed by 3519

Abstract

When seeking to explain the eventual outcomes of a higher education experience, do the personal attributes and background factors students bring to college matter more than what the college is able to contribute to the development of the student through education or other [...] Read more.

When seeking to explain the eventual outcomes of a higher education experience, do the personal attributes and background factors students bring to college matter more than what the college is able to contribute to the development of the student through education or other institutional factors? Most education studies tend to simply ignore cognitive aptitudes and other student characteristics—in particular the long history of research on this topic—since the focus is on trying to assess the impact of education. Thus, the role of student characteristics has in many ways been underappreciated in even highly sophisticated quantitative education research. Conversely, educational and institutional factors are not as prominent in studies focused on cognitive aptitudes, as these fields focus first on reasoning capacity, and secondarily on other factors. We examine the variance in student outcomes due to student (e.g., cognitive aptitudes) versus institutional characteristics (e.g., teachers, schools). At the level of universities, two contemporary U.S. datasets are used to examine the proportion of variance accounted for in various university rankings and long-run salary by student cognitive characteristics and institutional factors. We find that depending upon the ways the variables are entered into regression models, the findings are somewhat different. We suggest some fruitful paths forward which might integrate the methods and findings showing that teachers and schools matter, along with the broader developmental bounds within which these effects take place. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligence, Competencies, and Learning)

12 pages, 346 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

On the Relation between the Development of Working Memory Updating and Working Memory Capacity in Preschoolers

by Sabrina Panesi, Alessia Bandettini, Laura Traverso and Sergio Morra

J. Intell. 2022, 10(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence10010005 - 21 Jan 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3134

Abstract

This study aims at investigating the relationship between working memory updating and working memory capacity in preschool children. A sample of 176 preschoolers (36–74 months) was administered a working memory updating task (Magic House) along with three working memory capacity tests that specifically [...] Read more.

This study aims at investigating the relationship between working memory updating and working memory capacity in preschool children. A sample of 176 preschoolers (36–74 months) was administered a working memory updating task (Magic House) along with three working memory capacity tests that specifically measure their core attentional component (M capacity, as defined in the theory of constructive operators): Backward Word Span, Mr. Cucumber, and Direction Following Task. Correlational analyses and cross-classification prediction analyses were performed. Updating and capacity were significantly correlated, although the correlations were not high when age was partialled out. Capacity increased with age, and mediated the relation between age and updating. More importantly, cross-classification prediction analysis revealed that high updating scores with low M capacity, and low updating scores with relatively high M capacity, are possible events; the only combination ruled out was a low updating score with precocious development of M capacity. These facts demonstrate that updating skills in preschoolers depends on M capacity but does not coincide with it. Therefore, in cognitive developmental theories, the constructs of working memory updating and capacity should be distinguished, and on practical grounds, different tests should be used to measure them. Full article

27 pages, 2014 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Exploring Neural Signal Complexity as a Potential Link between Creative Thinking, Intelligence, and Cognitive Control

by Yadwinder Kaur, Selina Weiss, Changsong Zhou, Rico Fischer and Andrea Hildebrandt

J. Intell. 2021, 9(4), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9040059 - 30 Nov 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4374

Abstract

Functional connectivity studies have demonstrated that creative thinking builds upon an interplay of multiple neural networks involving the cognitive control system. Theoretically, cognitive control has generally been discussed as the common basis underlying the positive relationship between creative thinking and intelligence. However, the [...] Read more.

Functional connectivity studies have demonstrated that creative thinking builds upon an interplay of multiple neural networks involving the cognitive control system. Theoretically, cognitive control has generally been discussed as the common basis underlying the positive relationship between creative thinking and intelligence. However, the literature still lacks a detailed investigation of the association patterns between cognitive control, the factors of creative thinking as measured by divergent thinking (DT) tasks, i.e., fluency and originality, and intelligence, both fluid and crystallized. In the present study, we explored these relationships at the behavioral and the neural level, based on N = 77 young adults. We focused on brain-signal complexity (BSC), parameterized by multi-scale entropy (MSE), as measured during a verbal DT and a cognitive control task. We demonstrated that MSE is a sensitive neural indicator of originality as well as inhibition. Then, we explore the relationships between MSE and factor scores indicating DT and intelligence. In a series of across-scalp analyses, we show that the overall MSE measured during a DT task, as well as MSE measured in cognitive control states, are associated with fluency and originality at specific scalp locations, but not with fluid and crystallized intelligence. The present explorative study broadens our understanding of the relationship between creative thinking, intelligence, and cognitive control from the perspective of BSC and has the potential to inspire future BSC-related theories of creative thinking. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligence and Creativity)

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11 pages, 329 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoicePerspective

Intelligence Can Be Used to Make a More Equitable Society but Only When Properly Defined and Applied

by LaTasha R. Holden and Sara A. Hart

J. Intell. 2021, 9(4), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9040057 - 25 Nov 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5660

Abstract

In the US, undeniable evidence shows that socioeconomic inequities explain a high proportion of individual differences in school achievement. Although not all countries show this same effect due to socioeconomic status, it is consistently found that social inequities lead to achievement gaps. These [...] Read more.

In the US, undeniable evidence shows that socioeconomic inequities explain a high proportion of individual differences in school achievement. Although not all countries show this same effect due to socioeconomic status, it is consistently found that social inequities lead to achievement gaps. These achievement gaps then manifest into trajectories that set some individuals on a path of lower incomes, poorer health and higher mortality, lower wellbeing, and other poor adult outcomes. Like James Flynn so handily reminded the scientific literature that achievement gaps are explainable by environmental factors, the inequities we see around the world are based on environments some children are exposed to. In his work, Flynn stated his belief that the suppression of scientific work on intelligence would continue to lead to social inequities. We wish to take this idea and move it forward. We believe that the scientific construct of intelligence plays a key role in helping create a more equitable society through science. We also believe that the poor perception of intelligence, rooted in historical realities, means that it will continue to be misunderstood, feared, and misused, limiting how effective it could be in helping to close gaps in achievement and in creating a more equitable society. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue How Intelligence Can Be a Solution to Consequential World Problems)

23 pages, 846 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

In Search of the Executive Cognitive Processes Proposed by Process-Overlap Theory

by Gidon T. Frischkorn and Claudia C. von Bastian

J. Intell. 2021, 9(3), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030043 - 19 Aug 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3874

Abstract

Process-Overlap Theory (POT) suggests that measures of cognitive abilities sample from sets of independent cognitive processes. These cognitive processes can be separated into domain-general executive processes, sampled by the majority of cognitive ability measures, and domain-specific processes, sampled only by measures within a [...] Read more.

Process-Overlap Theory (POT) suggests that measures of cognitive abilities sample from sets of independent cognitive processes. These cognitive processes can be separated into domain-general executive processes, sampled by the majority of cognitive ability measures, and domain-specific processes, sampled only by measures within a certain domain. According to POT, fluid intelligence measures are related because different tests sample similar domain-general executive cognitive processes to some extent. Re-analyzing data from a study by De Simoni and von Bastian (2018), we assessed domain-general variance from executive processing tasks measuring inhibition, shifting, and efficiency of removal from working memory, as well as examined their relation to a domain-general factor extracted from fluid intelligence measures. The results showed that domain-general factors reflecting general processing speed were moderately and negatively correlated with the domain-general fluid intelligence factor (r = −.17–−.36). However, domain-general factors isolating variance specific to inhibition, shifting, and removal showed only small and inconsistent correlations with the domain-general fluid intelligence factor (r = .02–−.22). These findings suggest that (1) executive processing tasks sample only few domain-general executive processes also sampled by fluid intelligence measures, as well as (2) that domain-general speed of processing contributes more strongly to individual differences in fluid intelligence than do domain-general executive processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue g and Its Underlying Executive Processes)

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21 pages, 3060 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Bridging Brain and Cognition: A Multilayer Network Analysis of Brain Structural Covariance and General Intelligence in a Developmental Sample of Struggling Learners

by Ivan L. Simpson-Kent, Eiko I. Fried, Danyal Akarca, Silvana Mareva, Edward T. Bullmore, the CALM Team and Rogier A. Kievit

J. Intell. 2021, 9(2), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9020032 - 15 Jun 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5440

Abstract

Network analytic methods that are ubiquitous in other areas, such as systems neuroscience, have recently been used to test network theories in psychology, including intelligence research. The network or mutualism theory of intelligence proposes that the statistical associations among cognitive abilities (e.g., specific [...] Read more.

Network analytic methods that are ubiquitous in other areas, such as systems neuroscience, have recently been used to test network theories in psychology, including intelligence research. The network or mutualism theory of intelligence proposes that the statistical associations among cognitive abilities (e.g., specific abilities such as vocabulary or memory) stem from causal relations among them throughout development. In this study, we used network models (specifically LASSO) of cognitive abilities and brain structural covariance (grey and white matter) to simultaneously model brain–behavior relationships essential for general intelligence in a large (behavioral, N = 805; cortical volume, N = 246; fractional anisotropy, N = 165) developmental (ages 5–18) cohort of struggling learners (CALM). We found that mostly positive, small partial correlations pervade our cognitive, neural, and multilayer networks. Moreover, using community detection (Walktrap algorithm) and calculating node centrality (absolute strength and bridge strength), we found convergent evidence that subsets of both cognitive and neural nodes play an intermediary role ‘between’ brain and behavior. We discuss implications and possible avenues for future studies. Full article

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7 pages, 245 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Critical Thinking: A Model of Intelligence for Solving Real-World Problems

by Diane F. Halpern and Dana S. Dunn

J. Intell. 2021, 9(2), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9020022 - 07 Apr 2021

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 7524

Abstract

Most theories of intelligence do not directly address the question of whether people with high intelligence can successfully solve real world problems. A high IQ is correlated with many important outcomes (e.g., academic prominence, reduced crime), but it does not protect against cognitive [...] Read more.

Most theories of intelligence do not directly address the question of whether people with high intelligence can successfully solve real world problems. A high IQ is correlated with many important outcomes (e.g., academic prominence, reduced crime), but it does not protect against cognitive biases, partisan thinking, reactance, or confirmation bias, among others. There are several newer theories that directly address the question about solving real-world problems. Prominent among them is Sternberg’s adaptive intelligence with “adaptation to the environment” as the central premise, a construct that does not exist on standardized IQ tests. Similarly, some scholars argue that standardized tests of intelligence are not measures of rational thought—the sort of skill/ability that would be needed to address complex real-world problems. Other investigators advocate for critical thinking as a model of intelligence specifically designed for addressing real-world problems. Yes, intelligence (i.e., critical thinking) can be enhanced and used for solving a real-world problem such as COVID-19, which we use as an example of contemporary problems that need a new approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue How Intelligence Can Be a Solution to Consequential World Problems)

15 pages, 1207 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Relationship between Theory of Mind and Intelligence: A Formative g Approach

by Ester Navarro, Sara Anne Goring and Andrew R. A. Conway

J. Intell. 2021, 9(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9010011 - 19 Feb 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4031

Abstract

Theory of Mind (ToM) is the ability understand that other people’s mental states may be different from one’s own. Psychometric models have shown that individual differences in ToM can largely be attributed to general intelligence (g) (Coyle et al. 2018). Most [...] Read more.

Theory of Mind (ToM) is the ability understand that other people’s mental states may be different from one’s own. Psychometric models have shown that individual differences in ToM can largely be attributed to general intelligence (g) (Coyle et al. 2018). Most psychometric models specify g as a reflective latent variable, which is interpreted as a general ability that plays a causal role in a broad range of cognitive tasks, including ToM tasks. However, an alternative approach is to specify g as a formative latent variable, that is, an overall index of cognitive ability that does not represent a psychological attribute (Kovacs and Conway 2016). Here we consider a formative g approach to the relationship between ToM and intelligence. First, we conducted an SEM with reflective g to test the hypothesis that ToM is largely accounted for by a general ability. Next, we conducted a model with formative g to determine whether the relationship between ToM and intelligence is influenced by domain-specific tasks. Finally, we conducted a redundancy analysis to examine the contribution of each g variable. Results suggest that the relationship between ToM and intelligence in this study was influenced by language-based tasks, rather than solely a general ability. Full article

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27 pages, 976 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Intelligence and Creativity: Mapping Constructs on the Space-Time Continuum

by Giovanni Emanuele Corazza and Todd Lubart

J. Intell. 2021, 9(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9010001 - 30 Dec 2020

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 9263

Abstract

This theoretical article proposes a unified framework of analysis for the constructs of intelligence and creativity. General definitions for intelligence and creativity are provided, allowing fair comparisons between the two context-embedded constructs. A novel taxonomy is introduced to classify the contexts in which [...] Read more.

This theoretical article proposes a unified framework of analysis for the constructs of intelligence and creativity. General definitions for intelligence and creativity are provided, allowing fair comparisons between the two context-embedded constructs. A novel taxonomy is introduced to classify the contexts in which intelligent and/or creative behavior can be embedded, in terms of the tightness vs. looseness of the relevant conceptual space S and available time T. These two dimensions are used to form what is identified as the space-time continuum, containing four quadrants: tight space and tight time, loose space and tight time, tight space and loose time, loose space and loose time. The intelligence and creativity constructs can be mapped onto the four quadrants and found to overlap more or less, depending on the context characteristics. Measurement methodologies adapted to the four different quadrants are discussed. The article concludes with a discussion about future research directions based on the proposed theoretical framework, in terms of theories and hypotheses on intelligence and creativity, of eminent personalities and personality traits, as well as its consequences for developmental, educational, and professional environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligence and Creativity)

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10 pages, 1158 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceCommentary

How to Compare Psychometric Factor and Network Models

by Kees-Jan Kan, Hannelies de Jonge, Han L. J. van der Maas, Stephen Z. Levine and Sacha Epskamp

J. Intell. 2020, 8(4), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence8040035 - 02 Oct 2020

Cited by 44 | Viewed by 9734

Abstract

In memory of Dr. Dennis John McFarland, who passed away recently, our objective is to continue his efforts to compare psychometric networks and latent variable models statistically. We do so by providing a commentary on his latest work, which he encouraged us to [...] Read more.

In memory of Dr. Dennis John McFarland, who passed away recently, our objective is to continue his efforts to compare psychometric networks and latent variable models statistically. We do so by providing a commentary on his latest work, which he encouraged us to write, shortly before his death. We first discuss the statistical procedure McFarland used, which involved structural equation modeling (SEM) in standard SEM software. Next, we evaluate the penta-factor model of intelligence. We conclude that (1) standard SEM software is not suitable for the comparison of psychometric networks with latent variable models, and (2) the penta-factor model of intelligence is only of limited value, as it is nonidentified. We conclude with a reanalysis of the Wechlser Adult Intelligence Scale data McFarland discussed and illustrate how network and latent variable models can be compared using the recently developed R package Psychonetrics. Of substantive theoretical interest, the results support a network interpretation of general intelligence. A novel empirical finding is that networks of intelligence replicate over standardization samples. Full article

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24 pages, 1188 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effect Sizes, Power, and Biases in Intelligence Research: A Meta-Meta-Analysis

by Michèle B. Nuijten, Marcel A. L. M. van Assen, Hilde E. M. Augusteijn, Elise A. V. Crompvoets and Jelte M. Wicherts

J. Intell. 2020, 8(4), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence8040036 - 02 Oct 2020

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 7339

Abstract

In this meta-study, we analyzed 2442 effect sizes from 131 meta-analyses in intelligence research, published from 1984 to 2014, to estimate the average effect size, median power, and evidence for bias. We found that the average effect size in intelligence research was a [...] Read more.

In this meta-study, we analyzed 2442 effect sizes from 131 meta-analyses in intelligence research, published from 1984 to 2014, to estimate the average effect size, median power, and evidence for bias. We found that the average effect size in intelligence research was a Pearson’s correlation of 0.26, and the median sample size was 60. Furthermore, across primary studies, we found a median power of 11.9% to detect a small effect, 54.5% to detect a medium effect, and 93.9% to detect a large effect. We documented differences in average effect size and median estimated power between different types of intelligence studies (correlational studies, studies of group differences, experiments, toxicology, and behavior genetics). On average, across all meta-analyses (but not in every meta-analysis), we found evidence for small-study effects, potentially indicating publication bias and overestimated effects. We found no differences in small-study effects between different study types. We also found no convincing evidence for the decline effect, US effect, or citation bias across meta-analyses. We concluded that intelligence research does show signs of low power and publication bias, but that these problems seem less severe than in many other scientific fields. Full article

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23 pages, 1499 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Worst Performance Rule, or the Not-Best Performance Rule? Latent-Variable Analyses of Working Memory Capacity, Mind-Wandering Propensity, and Reaction Time

by Matthew S. Welhaf, Bridget A. Smeekens, Matt E. Meier, Paul J. Silvia, Thomas R. Kwapil and Michael J. Kane

J. Intell. 2020, 8(2), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence8020025 - 02 Jun 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4864

Abstract

The worst performance rule (WPR) is a robust empirical finding reflecting that people’s worst task performance shows numerically stronger correlations with cognitive ability than their average or best performance. However, recent meta-analytic work has proposed this be renamed the “not-best performance” rule because [...] Read more.

The worst performance rule (WPR) is a robust empirical finding reflecting that people’s worst task performance shows numerically stronger correlations with cognitive ability than their average or best performance. However, recent meta-analytic work has proposed this be renamed the “not-best performance” rule because mean and worst performance seem to predict cognitive ability to similar degrees, with both predicting ability better than best performance. We re-analyzed data from a previously published latent-variable study to test for worst vs. not-best performance across a variety of reaction time tasks in relation to two cognitive ability constructs: working memory capacity (WMC) and propensity for task-unrelated thought (TUT). Using two methods of assessing worst performance—ranked-binning and ex-Gaussian-modeling approaches—we found evidence for both the worst and not-best performance rules. WMC followed the not-best performance rule (correlating equivalently with mean and longest response times (RTs)) but TUT propensity followed the worst performance rule (correlating more strongly with longest RTs). Additionally, we created a mini-multiverse following different outlier exclusion rules to test the robustness of our findings; our findings remained stable across the different multiverse iterations. We provisionally conclude that the worst performance rule may only arise in relation to cognitive abilities closely linked to (failures of) sustained attention. Full article

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