Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders

A special issue of Journal of Clinical Medicine (ISSN 2077-0383). This special issue belongs to the section "Mental Health".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 28 March 2024 | Viewed by 129165

Special Issue Editor

Department of Psychiatry, Medical University of Białystok, Choroszcz, Poland
Interests: behavioral pharmacology; clinical neurophysiology; neuropsychopharmacology; psychopharmacology; sleep disorders; alcohol addiction; smoking; eating disorders; glycoconjugates; epidemiology

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Psychiatric disorders (mental illness) constitute a wide group of disorders, including depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia and other psychoses, anxiety disorders, substance-related disorders, dementia, and developmental disorders, e.g., autism. They have a specific behavioral and mental pattern, and characterized by a combination of abnormal thoughts, perceptions, emotions, behaviour, and relationships with others. They can be persistent, relapsing/remitting, or can occur as a single episode. Psychiatric disorders significantly worsen the lives of the people suffering from them. Up to one third of world’s population has some kind of a psychiatric disorder in a given year. These disorders affect the entire structure of people's lives, and cause significant distress or impairment of personal functioning, deteriorating quality of life and the course of somatic diseases. The diagnosis of mental disorders at an early stage allows for early treatment and/or psychotherapy, before the maximum severity of symptoms and hospitalization occur. With the current rapid social development and technology, we have many diagnostic options, such as biochemical, neuroimaging, neurophysiological, neurocognitive and the most commonly used: clinical. Biochemical tests are carried out using many body fluids. Currently, salivary diagnostics in psychiatry is increasing, as saliva contains a wide array of compounds which sensitively respond to biochemical changes in the organism, reflecting the real-time level of these markers, and can be taken in a non-invasive way, which reduces the patient’s stress. Biomarkers are tools used to more accurately identify high-risk individuals, speed up diagnosis, and help increase the likelihood of successful treatment and prognosis determination. The goal of this Special Issue is to summarize new advances in the markers of psychiatric disorders, including depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia and other psychoses, anxiety disorders, substance-related disorders, dementia, and developmental disorders such as autism. Original research and review articles are both welcome in order to best understand the importance of different markers of psychiatric illness. Potential topics include but are not limited to the following: advances in clinical markers of psychiatric disorders, advances in molecular and biochemical markers of psychiatric disorders, advances in (neuro)imaging markers of psychiatric disorders, advances in neurophysiological markers of psychiatric disorders, advances in neurocognitive markers of psychiatric disorders, and advances in markers of successful treatment in psychiatry.

Prof. Dr. Napoleon Waszkiewicz
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Journal of Clinical Medicine is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • psychiatric disorders
  • markers
  • biochemical
  • neuroimaging
  • neurophysiological
  • neurocognitive
  • clinical

Published Papers (27 papers)

Order results
Result details
Select all
Export citation of selected articles as:

Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

8 pages, 248 KiB  
Editorial
Ordering Knowledge in the Markers of Psychiatric/Mental Disorders
by Napoleon Waszkiewicz
J. Clin. Med. 2022, 11(2), 284; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11020284 - 06 Jan 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1517
Abstract
The Special Issue “Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders” [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders)
6 pages, 578 KiB  
Editorial
Mentally Sick or Not—(Bio)Markers of Psychiatric Disorders Needed
by Napoleon Waszkiewicz
J. Clin. Med. 2020, 9(8), 2375; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9082375 - 25 Jul 2020
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3059
Abstract
Psychiatric disorders, also called mental illnesses or mental disorders, constitute a wide group of disorders including major depression disorder (MDD), bipolar disorder (BD), schizophrenia (SCZ) and other psychoses, anxiety disorders (ANX), substance-related disorders (SRD), dementia, developmental disorders e [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders)
Show Figures

Figure 1

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

17 pages, 2420 KiB  
Article
Widespread Intra- and Inter-Network Dysconnectivity among Large-Scale Resting State Networks in Schizophrenia
by Bei Rong, Huan Huang, Guoqing Gao, Limin Sun, Yuan Zhou, Ling Xiao, Huiling Wang and Gaohua Wang
J. Clin. Med. 2023, 12(9), 3176; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm12093176 - 28 Apr 2023
Viewed by 1243
Abstract
Schizophrenia is characterized by the distributed dysconnectivity of resting-state multiple brain networks. However, the abnormalities of intra- and inter-network functional connectivity (FC) in schizophrenia and its relationship to symptoms remain unknown. The aim of the present study is to compare the intra- and [...] Read more.
Schizophrenia is characterized by the distributed dysconnectivity of resting-state multiple brain networks. However, the abnormalities of intra- and inter-network functional connectivity (FC) in schizophrenia and its relationship to symptoms remain unknown. The aim of the present study is to compare the intra- and inter-connectivity of the intrinsic networks between a large sample of patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls. Using the Region of interest (ROI) to ROI FC analyses, the intra- and inter-network FC of the eight resting state networks [default mode network (DMN); salience network (SN); frontoparietal network (FPN); dorsal attention network (DAN); language network (LN); visual network (VN); sensorimotor network (SMN); and cerebellar network (CN)] were investigated in 196 schizophrenia and 169-healthy controls. Compared to the healthy control group, the schizophrenia group exhibited increased intra-network FC in the DMN and decreased intra-network FC in the CN. Additionally, the schizophrenia group showed the decreased inter-network FC mainly involved the SN-DMN, SN-LN and SN-CN while increased inter-network FC in the SN-SMN and SN-DAN (p < 0.05, FDR-corrected). Our study suggests widespread intra- and inter-network dysconnectivity among large-scale RSNs in schizophrenia, mainly involving the DMN, SN and SMN, which may further contribute to the dysconnectivity hypothesis of schizophrenia. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders)
Show Figures

Figure 1

10 pages, 651 KiB  
Article
Intestinal Permeability and Depression in Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease
by Miorita Melina Iordache, Cristina Tocia, Mariana Aschie, Andrei Dumitru, Mihaela Manea, Georgeta Camelia Cozaru, Lucian Petcu, Sabina E. Vlad, Eugen Dumitru and Anca Chisoi
J. Clin. Med. 2022, 11(17), 5121; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11175121 - 30 Aug 2022
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2338
Abstract
Depression is a global health problem that requires an early and accurate diagnosis to ensure quick access to appropriate treatment. Among multiple psychopathological paths, recent attention has focused on analysing the brain–gut–microbiota axis. The intestinal barrier plays a key role, and dysfunctions occurring [...] Read more.
Depression is a global health problem that requires an early and accurate diagnosis to ensure quick access to appropriate treatment. Among multiple psychopathological paths, recent attention has focused on analysing the brain–gut–microbiota axis. The intestinal barrier plays a key role, and dysfunctions occurring at this level have implications for mental health. The aim of the present study was to investigate the role of intestinal permeability biomarkers, i.e., calprotectin, zonulin, lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP) and intestinal fatty acid-binding protein (I-FAB), in relation to depression in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). This is the first study of this kind taking place in Romania, Eastern Europe, with an emphasis on patients with Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis. The correlations identified between depression and calprotectin and depression and LBP have the potential to shed light on the process of rapid diagnosis of depression with the help of biomarkers. Since depression is correlated with a decrease in the quality of life in patients with IBD, the need for access to appropriate treatments must be urgent. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders)
Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 936 KiB  
Article
Is Poor Lithium Response in Individuals with Bipolar Disorder Associated with Increased Degradation of Tryptophan along the Kynurenine Pathway? Results of an Exploratory Study
by Frederike T. Fellendorf, Mirko Manchia, Alessio Squassina, Claudia Pisanu, Stefano Dall’Acqua, Stefania Sut, Sofia Nasini, Donatella Congiu, Eva Z. Reininghaus, Mario Garzilli, Beatrice Guiso, Federico Suprani, Pasquale Paribello, Vittoria Pulcinelli, Maria Novella Iaselli, Ilaria Pinna, Giulia Somaini, Laura Arru, Carolina Corrias, Federica Pinna, Bernardo Carpiniello and Stefano Comaiadd Show full author list remove Hide full author list
J. Clin. Med. 2022, 11(9), 2517; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11092517 - 29 Apr 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2324
Abstract
Bipolar disorder is associated with an inflammation-triggered elevated catabolism of tryptophan to the kynurenine pathway, which impacts psychiatric symptoms and outcomes. The data indicate that lithium exerts anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO)-1 activity. This exploratory study aimed to investigate the tryptophan catabolism [...] Read more.
Bipolar disorder is associated with an inflammation-triggered elevated catabolism of tryptophan to the kynurenine pathway, which impacts psychiatric symptoms and outcomes. The data indicate that lithium exerts anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO)-1 activity. This exploratory study aimed to investigate the tryptophan catabolism in individuals with bipolar disorder (n = 48) compared to healthy controls (n = 48), and the associations with the response to mood stabilizers such as lithium, valproate, or lamotrigine rated with the Retrospective Assessment of the Lithium Response Phenotype Scale (or the Alda scale). The results demonstrate an association of a poorer response to lithium with higher levels of kynurenine, kynurenine/tryptophan ratio as a proxy for IDO-1 activity, as well as quinolinic acid, which, overall, indicates a pro-inflammatory state with a higher degradation of tryptophan towards the neurotoxic branch. The treatment response to valproate and lamotrigine was not associated with the levels of the tryptophan metabolites. These findings support the anti-inflammatory properties of lithium. Furthermore, since quinolinic acid has neurotoxic features via the glutamatergic pathway, they also strengthen the assumption that the clinical drug response might be associated with biochemical processes. The relationship between the lithium response and the measurements of the tryptophan to the kynurenine pathway is of clinical relevance and may potentially bring advantages towards a personalized medicine approach to bipolar disorder that allows for the selection of the most effective mood-stabilizing drug. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders)
Show Figures

Figure 1

10 pages, 257 KiB  
Article
The Performance of Dual-Task Tests Can Be a Combined Neuro-Psychological and Motor Marker of Mild Cognitive Impairment, Depression and Dementia in Geriatric Patients—A Cross-Sectional Study
by Agnieszka Kasiukiewicz, Lukasz Magnuszewski, Marta Swietek and Zyta Beata Wojszel
J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10(22), 5358; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10225358 - 17 Nov 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1774
Abstract
The study aims to assess the performance of dual-task tests in the geriatric population and their association with the cognitive status of the patients. Methods: Patients admitted to the Department of Geriatrics, Hospital of the Ministry of Interior and Administration on Bialystok, Poland, [...] Read more.
The study aims to assess the performance of dual-task tests in the geriatric population and their association with the cognitive status of the patients. Methods: Patients admitted to the Department of Geriatrics, Hospital of the Ministry of Interior and Administration on Bialystok, Poland, in 2019 and 2020 were enrolled in the study. Data on the patients’ clinical, functional, and cognitive status were collected based on the comprehensive geriatric assessment. Dual-task tests included Timed Up and Go (TUG) test while counting backward (CB7), enumerating animals (EA), and holding a cup (TUG M). Results: 250 patients were included in the study, with a median age of 81.5 years (IQR 76–86) and most above 75 years of age (80.8%). Only 29 (11.6%) of study participants had no cognitive or mood disorders. Depression was diagnosed in 30.4%, MCI in 12%, and dementia in 38.4% of cases with median Mini-Mental Score Evaluation (MMSE) 17 (12–20) points. Dual-task TUG CB7 results did not differ between cognitive conditions of patients. TUG EA differed between healthy controls and other cognitive groups and TUG between healthy controls and depression and dementia, but not mild cognitive impairment (MCI). The performance of all dual-task tests differed in patients with and without dementia. Ability to finish TUG CB7 was low even in the group without dementia. There were statistically significant differences in median scores of MMSE and Clock Drawing Test (CDT) between patients who were able or not to finish single and dual-task gait tests. Conclusion: Dual-task test results and the performance of these tasks can differentiate patients with depression, MCI and dementia compared to healthy controls in the geriatric population. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders)
12 pages, 539 KiB  
Article
Elevated Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF) as Candidate Biomarker of Mood Disorders—Longitudinal Study in Adolescent and Young Adult Patients
by Maria Skibinska, Pawel Kapelski, Monika Dmitrzak-Weglarz, Natalia Lepczynska, Joanna Pawlak, Joanna Twarowska-Hauser, Aleksandra Szczepankiewicz and Aleksandra Rajewska-Rager
J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10(18), 4064; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10184064 - 08 Sep 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1839
Abstract
Bipolar disorder (BD) is a chronic mental disorder that affects more than 1% of the population worldwide. Over 65% of patients experience early onset of the disease. Most cases of juvenile bipolar disorder begin with a depressed mood episode, and up to 50% [...] Read more.
Bipolar disorder (BD) is a chronic mental disorder that affects more than 1% of the population worldwide. Over 65% of patients experience early onset of the disease. Most cases of juvenile bipolar disorder begin with a depressed mood episode, and up to 50% of youth initially diagnosed with major depression go onto developing a BD. Our study aimed to find biomarkers of diagnosis conversion in young patients with mood disorders. We performed a two-year follow-up study on 79 adolescent patients diagnosed with MDD or BD, with a detailed clinical assessment at five visits. We monitored diagnosis change from MDD to BD. The control group consisted of 31 healthy youths. According to the neurodevelopmental and neuroimmunological hypotheses of mood disorders, we analyzed serum levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), proBDNF, epidermal growth factor (EGF), migration inhibitory factor (MIF), stem cell factor (SCF), and correlations with clinical factors. We detected a significant disease-dependent increase in EGF level in MDD and BP patients at baseline exacerbation of depressive or hypomanic/manic episodes as well as in euthymic state compared to healthy controls. No potential biological predictors of disease conversion were found. Replication studies on a larger cohort of patients are needed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders)
Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 520 KiB  
Article
Neutrophil-to-Lymphocyte Ratio, a Novel Inflammatory Marker, as a Predictor of Bipolar Type in Depressed Patients: A Quest for Biological Markers
by Vlad Dionisie, Gabriela Adriana Filip, Mihnea Costin Manea, Robert Constantin Movileanu, Emanuel Moisa, Mirela Manea, Sorin Riga and Adela Magdalena Ciobanu
J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10(9), 1924; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10091924 - 29 Apr 2021
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 2739
Abstract
(1) Background: Recent research suggests inflammation as a factor involved in the pathophysiology of mood disorders. Neutrophil-to-lymphocyte (NLR), monocyte-to-lymphocyte (MLR), platelet-to-lymphocyte (PLR), and systemic immune-inflammatory (SII) index ratios have been studied as peripheral markers of inflammation in bipolar and major depressive disorders. The [...] Read more.
(1) Background: Recent research suggests inflammation as a factor involved in the pathophysiology of mood disorders. Neutrophil-to-lymphocyte (NLR), monocyte-to-lymphocyte (MLR), platelet-to-lymphocyte (PLR), and systemic immune-inflammatory (SII) index ratios have been studied as peripheral markers of inflammation in bipolar and major depressive disorders. The purpose of this study is to comparatively analyze these inflammatory ratios among manic episodes of bipolar disorder, bipolar depression and unipolar depression. (2) Methods: 182 patients were retrospectively included in the study and divided into three groups: 65 manic patients, 34 patients with bipolar depression, and 83 unipolar depressive patients. White blood cells, neutrophils, monocytes, lymphocytes, and platelets were retrieved from the patients’ database. NLR, MLR, PLR, and SII index were calculated using these parameters. (3) Results: Patients with manic episodes had elevated NLR (p < 0.001), MLR (p < 0.01), PLR (p < 0.05), and SII index (p < 0.001) compared to unipolar depression and increased NLR (p < 0.05) and SII index (p < 0.05) when compared to bipolar depression. NLR (p < 0.01) and SII index (p < 0.05) were higher in the bipolar depression than unipolar depression. NLR is an independent predictor of the bipolar type of depression in depressive patients. (4) Conclusions: The results confirm the role of inflammation in the pathophysiology of mood disorders and suggest the ability of NLR as a marker for the differentiation of bipolar from unipolar depression. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders)
Show Figures

Figure 1

10 pages, 959 KiB  
Article
GABA Supplementation Negatively Affects Cognitive Flexibility Independent of Tyrosine
by Lee Wei Lim and Luca Aquili
J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10(9), 1807; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10091807 - 21 Apr 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6005
Abstract
Increasing evidence, particularly from animal studies, suggests that dopamine and GABA are important modulators of cognitive flexibility. In humans, increasing dopamine synthesis through its precursor tyrosine has been shown to result in performance improvements, but few studies have reported the effects of GABA [...] Read more.
Increasing evidence, particularly from animal studies, suggests that dopamine and GABA are important modulators of cognitive flexibility. In humans, increasing dopamine synthesis through its precursor tyrosine has been shown to result in performance improvements, but few studies have reported the effects of GABA supplementation in healthy participants. We conducted a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized experiment to test the interactive effects of tyrosine and GABA administration on two measures of cognitive flexibility, response inhibition and task switching. A total of 48 healthy volunteers were split into four groups (placebo, tyrosine alone, GABA alone, and tyrosine and GABA combined). They completed cognitive flexibility tasks at baseline and after drug administration. We found that tyrosine alone had no impact on the measures of cognitive flexibility, whereas GABA alone and in combination with tyrosine worsened task switching. Our results provide preliminary evidence that putative increases in GABA and dopamine synthesis do not interact to affect cognitive flexibility performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders)
Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 1165 KiB  
Article
Correlation between Biomarkers of Pain in Saliva and PAINAD Scale in Elderly People with Cognitive Impairment and Inability to Communicate
by Vanesa Cantón-Habas, Manuel Rich-Ruiz, María Teresa Moreno-Casbas, María Jesús Ramírez-Expósito, Jose Manuel Martínez-Martos and María Del Pilar Carrera-González
J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10(7), 1424; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10071424 - 01 Apr 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1898
Abstract
The pain assessment in advanced dementia (PAINAD) appears to be a clinically useful tool. However, the salivary determination of tumor necrosis factor receptor type II (sTNF-RII) and secretory IgA (sIgA) as pain biomarkers is still incipient. The aim was to correlate the PAINAD [...] Read more.
The pain assessment in advanced dementia (PAINAD) appears to be a clinically useful tool. However, the salivary determination of tumor necrosis factor receptor type II (sTNF-RII) and secretory IgA (sIgA) as pain biomarkers is still incipient. The aim was to correlate the PAINAD score with sTNF-RII and sIgA biomarker levels in the saliva of patients with advanced dementia. In this regard, a cross-sectional study was conducted. The sample consisted of 75 elderly patients with a clinical diagnosis of dementia and a global deterioration scale (GDS) score of 5 to 7. The PAINAD scale was determined by a previously trained professional and the collection of salivary samples was performed using the passive secretion method. Human sTNF-RII and sIgA using ELISA kits. The results showed a correlation between the PAINAD scale (numeric, binary, and recoded) and sTNF-RII and sIgA (p < 0.001). No association between the sociodemographic and clinical variables and the PAINAD scale was found (p > 0.05). Between 97.3% and 96.2% of patients with pain on the PAINAD scale also showed pain based on the sTNF-RII levels; in all of them, sIgA levels did not fit the logistic models. Therefore, the correlation highlights the usefulness of this scale and confirms the usefulness of sTNF-RII and sIgA as biomarkers of pain. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders)
Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 905 KiB  
Article
The Role of Inflammatory Proteins in Anti-Glucocorticoid Therapy for Treatment-Resistant Depression
by Rebecca Strawbridge, Alzbeta Jamieson, John Hodsoll, Ian Nicol Ferrier, Richard Hamish McAllister-Williams, Timothy R. Powell, Allan H. Young, Anthony J. Cleare and Stuart Watson
J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10(4), 784; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10040784 - 16 Feb 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2509
Abstract
Background: Optimising treatments for patients with treatment-resistant depression (TRD) is key to reducing the burden of this severe illness. The anti-glucocorticoid medication metyrapone has mixed evidence supporting a role as a possible augmentation treatment in TRD. The degree of treatment resistance in depression [...] Read more.
Background: Optimising treatments for patients with treatment-resistant depression (TRD) is key to reducing the burden of this severe illness. The anti-glucocorticoid medication metyrapone has mixed evidence supporting a role as a possible augmentation treatment in TRD. The degree of treatment resistance in depression has been associated prospectively and retrospectively with elevated inflammation, and inflammatory activity may influence responses to antidepressant treatments. Aims: To investigate whether levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines are associated with clinical outcomes to metyrapone or placebo. Methods: A double-blind RCT randomised patients with TRD to 3 weeks of placebo or metyrapone augmentation to ongoing serotonergic antidepressants. No benefit of metyrapone was reported in the primary analysis. The current study assessed levels of pro-inflammatory proteins interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumour necrosis factor (TNFα), c-reactive protein (CRP) and interleukin-10 (IL-10) before randomisation and after treatment as potential moderators and/or mediators of clinical outcomes. Results: The three pro-inflammatory proteins (but not IL-10) were elevated in this sample of patients with TRD compared to a non-affected control group. High pre-treatment IL-6 levels predicted a poorer response in the trial overall but did not moderate response to metyrapone versus placebo. Changes in IL-6 indirectly mediated depression outcome, with metyrapone increasing IL-6 levels and IL-6 increase associated with a poorer outcome on depression. Other inflammatory proteins did not mediate or moderate treatment outcomes. Interpretation: Metyrapone is hypothesised to have a therapeutic effect in depression on the basis of inhibiting the synthesis of cortisol. In this study, metyrapone did not reduce cortisol, possibly due to glucocorticoid system overcompensation). The mediation effect of IL-6 may support this and perhaps help to indicate why the treatment was not effective. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders)
Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 412 KiB  
Article
Early Cortisol and Inflammatory Responses to Parental Cancer and Their Impact on Functional Impairment in Youth
by Benjamin Hayes, Jacob Brent, Yongqi Zhong, Shervin Bazmi, Giovanna Porta, Dana H. Bovbjerg, Ahmad Tarhini, John M. Kirkwood, David A. Brent, Anna Marsland and Nadine M. Melhem
J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10(4), 576; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10040576 - 04 Feb 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2178
Abstract
Purpose: Chronic stress is associated with increased risk for maladaptive psychological responses during childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood. Adults exposed to chronic stress during childhood exhibit dysregulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity and inflammation. There are no studies examining the impact of stress [...] Read more.
Purpose: Chronic stress is associated with increased risk for maladaptive psychological responses during childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood. Adults exposed to chronic stress during childhood exhibit dysregulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity and inflammation. There are no studies examining the impact of stress on biological stress responses and functional impairment in adolescents and young adults early after the onset of a stressor. Methods: The sample consisted of 59 offspring, aged 11–25 years, 33 of parents diagnosed with cancer and 26 controls from families with no cancer or severe chronic illness in parents or siblings. Cancer patients and their families were recruited within an average of 62 days (SD = 35.9) and followed at 6 and 9 months later. Functional impairment was assessed and hair cortisol concentrations (HCC), salivary cortisol, and inflammatory markers were measured. Mixed regression analyses were conducted. Results: The stress group showed higher functional impairment (β = −5.5, 95% CI (−10.4, −0.06), p = 0.03, d= −0.40) and HCC (β = 10.5, 95% CI (−5.5, −0.50), p < 0.001, d = 1.43). However, HCC were reduced over time in the stress group (β= −0.3, 95% CI (−0.04, −0.01), p < 0.001, d = −1.08). Higher total cortisol output was associated with increased functional impairment over time (β = −3.0, 95% CI (−5.5, −0.5), p = 0.02, d = −0.60). Conclusions: Parental cancer is associated with early increase in cortisol, which was associated with increased functional impairment in offspring. Clinicians need to assess and monitor psychiatric symptoms and functioning in these offspring early on following parental cancer diagnosis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders)
Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 2126 KiB  
Article
Is Interleukin 17 (IL-17) Expression A Common Point in the Pathogenesis of Depression and Obesity?
by Katarzyna Bliźniewska-Kowalska, Bernadeta Szewczyk, Małgorzata Gałecka, Kuan-Pin Su, Michael Maes, Janusz Szemraj and Piotr Gałecki
J. Clin. Med. 2020, 9(12), 4018; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9124018 - 12 Dec 2020
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2703
Abstract
(1) Background: Activated immune-inflammatory pathways play an important role in the pathogenesis of depression and pathological obesity. Obesity might promote production of cytokine interleukin 17, which plays a significant role in neuro-immune reactions. The study aimed at assessing the relationship between Body Mass [...] Read more.
(1) Background: Activated immune-inflammatory pathways play an important role in the pathogenesis of depression and pathological obesity. Obesity might promote production of cytokine interleukin 17, which plays a significant role in neuro-immune reactions. The study aimed at assessing the relationship between Body Mass Index (BMI) and IL-17 expression, taking into account the clinical psychiatric variables in patients with depression. (2) Methods: A total of 125 participants took part in the study (95 depressed patients, 30 healthy controls). Data concerning the course of depressive disorders and BMI were collected. The severity of depressive symptoms was assessed using the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS). Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was used to assess IL-17 gene expression at the mRNA levels, while enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to assess IL-17 expression at the protein level. (3) Results: Patients with more hospitalizations showed significantly higher IL-17 mRNA expression levels and higher BMI. However, no correlation between BMI and IL-17 expression was found in depressed patients. (4) Conclusions: Our study revealed that BMI does not affect IL-17 expression in patients with depression. However, further studies should be conducted to evaluate the effects of IL-17 inhibition on adipose tissue and vice versa. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders)
Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 1022 KiB  
Article
Inflammatory Proteins and Clinical Response to Psychological Therapy in Patients with Depression: An Exploratory Study
by Rebecca Strawbridge, Lindsey Marwood, Sinead King, Allan H. Young, Carmine M. Pariante, Alessandro Colasanti and Anthony J. Cleare
J. Clin. Med. 2020, 9(12), 3918; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9123918 - 02 Dec 2020
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2177
Abstract
In people with depression, immune dysfunctions have been linked with treatment non-response, but examinations of psychological therapy outcomes, particularly longitudinal biomarker studies, are rare. This study investigated relationships between inflammation, depressive subtypes and clinical outcomes to psychological therapy. Adults with depression (n [...] Read more.
In people with depression, immune dysfunctions have been linked with treatment non-response, but examinations of psychological therapy outcomes, particularly longitudinal biomarker studies, are rare. This study investigated relationships between inflammation, depressive subtypes and clinical outcomes to psychological therapy. Adults with depression (n = 96) were assessed before and after a course of naturalistically-delivered psychological therapy. In total, 32 serum inflammatory proteins were examined alongside therapy outcomes and depressive subtypes (somatic/cognitive symptom subtype, and bipolar/unipolar depression). Overall, 49% of participants responded to treatment. High levels of tumour necrosis factor (TNFα), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and soluble intracellular adhesion molecule-1 (sICAM1), and low interferon-γ (IFNγ), preceded a poorer response to therapy. After therapy, non-responders had elevated c-reactive protein (CRP), thymus and activation-regulated chemokine (TARC) and macrophage chemoattractant protein-4 (MCP4), and attenuated IFNy. Non-somatic depressive symptoms were universally not associated with proteins, while somatic-depressive symptom severity was positively correlated with several pro-inflammatory markers. In the somatic subgroup only, IL-6 and serum amyloid alpha (SAA) decreased between pre- and post-therapy timepoints. Regardless of treatment response, IL-7, IL-8, IL-15 and IL-17 increased over time. These results suggest that inflammation is associated with somatic symptoms of depression and non-response to psychological therapy. Future work may enhance the prospective prediction of treatment-response by examining larger samples of individuals undertaking standardised treatment programmes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders)
Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 1202 KiB  
Article
Differentiating Females with Rett Syndrome and Those with Multi-Comorbid Autism Spectrum Disorder Using Physiological Biomarkers: A Novel Approach
by Nantia Iakovidou, Evamaria Lanzarini, Jatinder Singh, Federico Fiori and Paramala Santosh
J. Clin. Med. 2020, 9(9), 2842; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9092842 - 02 Sep 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2974
Abstract
This study explored the use of wearable sensor technology to investigate autonomic function in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and Rett syndrome (RTT). We aimed to identify autonomic biomarkers that can correctly differentiate females with ASD and Rett Syndrome using an innovative [...] Read more.
This study explored the use of wearable sensor technology to investigate autonomic function in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and Rett syndrome (RTT). We aimed to identify autonomic biomarkers that can correctly differentiate females with ASD and Rett Syndrome using an innovative methodology that applies machine learning approaches. Our findings suggest that we can predict (95%) the status of ASD/Rett. We conclude that physiological biomarkers may be able to assist in the differentiation between patients with RTT and ASD and could allow the development of timely therapeutic strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders)
Show Figures

Figure 1

Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

34 pages, 1332 KiB  
Review
Multiple Aspects of Inappropriate Action of Renin–Angiotensin, Vasopressin, and Oxytocin Systems in Neuropsychiatric and Neurodegenerative Diseases
by Ewa Szczepanska-Sadowska, Agnieszka Wsol, Agnieszka Cudnoch-Jedrzejewska, Katarzyna Czarzasta and Tymoteusz Żera
J. Clin. Med. 2022, 11(4), 908; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11040908 - 09 Feb 2022
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3447
Abstract
The cardiovascular system and the central nervous system (CNS) closely cooperate in the regulation of primary vital functions. The autonomic nervous system and several compounds known as cardiovascular factors, especially those targeting the renin–angiotensin system (RAS), the vasopressin system (VPS), and the oxytocin [...] Read more.
The cardiovascular system and the central nervous system (CNS) closely cooperate in the regulation of primary vital functions. The autonomic nervous system and several compounds known as cardiovascular factors, especially those targeting the renin–angiotensin system (RAS), the vasopressin system (VPS), and the oxytocin system (OTS), are also efficient modulators of several other processes in the CNS. The components of the RAS, VPS, and OTS, regulating pain, emotions, learning, memory, and other cognitive processes, are present in the neurons, glial cells, and blood vessels of the CNS. Increasing evidence shows that the combined function of the RAS, VPS, and OTS is altered in neuropsychiatric/neurodegenerative diseases, and in particular in patients with depression, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, autism, and schizophrenia. The altered function of the RAS may also contribute to CNS disorders in COVID-19. In this review, we present evidence that there are multiple causes for altered combined function of the RAS, VPS, and OTS in psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders, such as genetic predispositions and the engagement of the RAS, VAS, and OTS in the processes underlying emotions, memory, and cognition. The neuroactive pharmaceuticals interfering with the synthesis or the action of angiotensins, vasopressin, and oxytocin can improve or worsen the effectiveness of treatment for neuropsychiatric/neurodegenerative diseases. Better knowledge of the multiple actions of the RAS, VPS, and OTS may facilitate programming the most efficient treatment for patients suffering from the comorbidity of neuropsychiatric/neurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders)
Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 461 KiB  
Review
Cortisol as a Biomarker of Mental Disorder Severity
by Ewelina Dziurkowska and Marek Wesolowski
J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10(21), 5204; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10215204 - 08 Nov 2021
Cited by 44 | Viewed by 22598
Abstract
Cortisol—the most important steroid hormone with a significant effect on body metabolism—strongly affects peripheral tissues and the central nervous system. Fluctuations in cortisol secretion often accompany psychiatric disorders, and normalization of its levels correlates with improvement in the patient’s health. This indicates that [...] Read more.
Cortisol—the most important steroid hormone with a significant effect on body metabolism—strongly affects peripheral tissues and the central nervous system. Fluctuations in cortisol secretion often accompany psychiatric disorders, and normalization of its levels correlates with improvement in the patient’s health. This indicates that cortisol may be useful as a biological marker that can help determine the likelihood of mental illness, its impending onset, and the severity of symptoms, which is especially important in the face of the increasing prevalence of mental disorders, including those associated with social isolation and anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic. This publication reviews recent reports on cortisol levels in healthy participants and shows the current state of knowledge on changes in the levels of this hormone in people at risk for depression, bipolar disorder, and psychosis. It shows how people with psychiatric disorders react to stressful situations and how the applied therapies affect cortisol secretion. The influence of antidepressants and antipsychotics on cortisol levels in healthy people and those with mental disorders is also described. Finally, it reviews publications on the patterns of cortisol secretion in patients in remission. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders)
Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 1130 KiB  
Review
The Influence of Psychotherapy on Peripheral Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Concentration Levels and Gene Methylation Status: A Systematic Review
by Michal Piotrkowicz, Marlena Janoska-Jazdzik, Tytus Koweszko and Agata Szulc
J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10(19), 4424; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10194424 - 27 Sep 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2183
Abstract
Psychotherapy is a well-established method of treating many mental disorders. It has been proven that psychotherapy leads to structural and functional changes in the brain; however, knowledge about the molecular and cellular mechanisms of these changes is limited. Neuroplasticity and one of its [...] Read more.
Psychotherapy is a well-established method of treating many mental disorders. It has been proven that psychotherapy leads to structural and functional changes in the brain; however, knowledge about the molecular and cellular mechanisms of these changes is limited. Neuroplasticity and one of its mediators, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), are potential research targets in this field. To define the role of BDNF concentration in serum, or in plasma, and BDNF promoter gene methylation in saliva or leucocytes, in psychotherapy, an extensive literature search was conducted in the PubMed and Web of Science databases. The literature review was conducted based on papers published up until May 2021 that included pre and post psychotherapy measurements of either BDNF concentration levels or promoter gene methylation status. Ten studies were indicated as eligible for analysis: eight studies that investigated peripheral BDNF concentration levels, one study that investigated methylation status, and one study that included an evaluation of both subject matters. Patients underwent cognitive behavioral therapy or interpersonal psychotherapy. Patients were diagnosed with borderline personality disorder, major depressive disorder, anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, or post-traumatic stress disorder. There were only three of the nine studies that showed statistically significant increases in BDNF concentration levels after psychotherapy. The two studies that involved BDNF gene methylation status showed a decrease in methylation after dialectical behavioral therapy of borderline patients. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders)
Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 1095 KiB  
Review
Biomarkers of Post-COVID Depression
by Piotr Lorkiewicz and Napoleon Waszkiewicz
J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10(18), 4142; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10184142 - 14 Sep 2021
Cited by 50 | Viewed by 9924
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic is spreading around the world and 187 million people have already been affected. One of its after-effects is post-COVID depression, which, according to the latest data, affects up to 40% of people who have had SARS-CoV-2 infection. A very important [...] Read more.
The COVID-19 pandemic is spreading around the world and 187 million people have already been affected. One of its after-effects is post-COVID depression, which, according to the latest data, affects up to 40% of people who have had SARS-CoV-2 infection. A very important issue for the mental health of the general population is to look for the causes of this complication and its biomarkers. This will help in faster diagnosis and effective treatment of the affected patients. In our work, we focused on the search for major depressive disorder (MDD) biomarkers, which are also present in COVID-19 patients and may influence the development of post-COVID depression. For this purpose, we searched PubMed, Scopus and Google Scholar scientific literature databases using keywords such as ‘COVID-19’, ‘SARS-CoV-2’, ‘depression’, ‘post-COVID’, ‘biomarkers’ and others. Among the biomarkers found, the most important that were frequently described are increased levels of interleukin 6 (IL-6), soluble interleukin 6 receptor (sIL-6R), interleukin 1 β (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interferon gamma (IFN-γ), interleukin 10 (IL-10), interleukin 2 (IL-2), soluble interleukin 2 receptor (sIL-2R), C-reactive protein (CRP), Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1 (MCP-1), serum amyloid a (SAA1) and metabolites of the kynurenine pathway, as well as decreased brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and tryptophan (TRP). The biomarkers identified by us indicate the etiopathogenesis of post-COVID depression analogous to the leading inflammatory hypothesis of MDD. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders)
Show Figures

Figure 1

25 pages, 481 KiB  
Review
The Role of Cytokines in the Pathogenesis of Schizophrenia
by Bartosz Dawidowski, Adrianna Górniak, Piotr Podwalski, Zofia Lebiecka, Błażej Misiak and Jerzy Samochowiec
J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10(17), 3849; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10173849 - 27 Aug 2021
Cited by 38 | Viewed by 3970
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a chronic mental illness of unknown etiology. A growing and compelling body of evidence implicates immunologic dysfunction as the key element in its pathomechanism. Cytokines, whose altered levels have been increasingly reported in various patient populations, are the major mediators involved [...] Read more.
Schizophrenia is a chronic mental illness of unknown etiology. A growing and compelling body of evidence implicates immunologic dysfunction as the key element in its pathomechanism. Cytokines, whose altered levels have been increasingly reported in various patient populations, are the major mediators involved in the coordination of the immune system. The available literature reports both elevated levels of proinflammatory as well as reduced levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines, and their effects on clinical status and neuroimaging changes. There is evidence of at least a partial genetic basis for the association between cytokine alterations and schizophrenia. Two other factors implicated in its development include early childhood trauma and disturbances in the gut microbiome. Moreover, its various subtypes, characterized by individual symptom severity and course, such as deficit schizophrenia, seem to differ in terms of changes in peripheral cytokine levels. While the use of a systematic review methodology could be difficult due to the breadth and diversity of the issues covered in this review, the applied narrative approach allows for a more holistic presentation. The aim of this narrative review was to present up-to-date evidence on cytokine dysregulation in schizophrenia, its effect on the psychopathological presentation, and links with antipsychotic medication. We also attempted to summarize its postulated underpinnings, including early childhood trauma and gut microbiome disturbances, and propose trait and state markers of schizophrenia. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders)
15 pages, 324 KiB  
Review
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation as a Diagnostic and Therapeutic Tool in Various Types of Dementia
by Jakub Antczak, Gabriela Rusin and Agnieszka Słowik
J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10(13), 2875; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10132875 - 28 Jun 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3524
Abstract
Dementia is recognized as a healthcare and social burden and remains challenging in terms of proper diagnosis and treatment. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a diagnostic and therapeutic tool in various neurological diseases that noninvasively investigates cortical excitability and connectivity and can induce [...] Read more.
Dementia is recognized as a healthcare and social burden and remains challenging in terms of proper diagnosis and treatment. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a diagnostic and therapeutic tool in various neurological diseases that noninvasively investigates cortical excitability and connectivity and can induce brain plasticity. This article reviews findings on TMS in common dementia types as well as therapeutic results. Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is characterized by increased cortical excitability and reduced cortical inhibition, especially as mediated by cholinergic neurons and as documented by impairment of short latency inhibition (SAI). In vascular dementia, excitability is also increased. SAI may have various outcomes, which probably reflects its frequent overlap with AD. Dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) is associated with SAI decrease. Motor cortical excitability is usually normal, reflecting the lack of corticospinal tract involvement. DLB and other dementia types are also characterized by impairment of short interval intracortical inhibition. In frontotemporal dementia, cortical excitability is increased, but SAI is normal. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation has the potential to improve cognitive function. It has been extensively studied in AD, showing promising results after multisite stimulation. TMS with electroencephalography recording opens new possibilities for improving diagnostic accuracy; however, more studies are needed to support the existing data. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders)
18 pages, 781 KiB  
Review
Biological Markers in Anxiety Disorders
by Kacper Łoś and Napoleon Waszkiewicz
J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10(8), 1744; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10081744 - 17 Apr 2021
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 8752
Abstract
Anxiety disorders are one of the most commonly reported disorders in psychiatry, causing a high medical and socio-economic burden. Recently, there has been a soaring interest in the biological basis of anxiety disorders, which is reflected in an increasing number of articles related [...] Read more.
Anxiety disorders are one of the most commonly reported disorders in psychiatry, causing a high medical and socio-economic burden. Recently, there has been a soaring interest in the biological basis of anxiety disorders, which is reflected in an increasing number of articles related to the topic. Due to the ambiguity of the diagnosis and a large number of underdiagnosed patients, researchers are looking for laboratory tests that could facilitate the diagnosis of anxiety disorders in clinical practice and would allow for the earliest possible implementation of appropriate treatment. Such potential biomarkers may also be useable in monitoring the efficacy of pharmacological therapy for anxiety disorders. Therefore this article reviews the literature of potential biomarkers such as components of saliva, peripheral blood, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and neuroimaging studies. There are promising publications in the literature that can be useful. The most valuable and promising markers of saliva are cortisol, lysozyme, and α-amylase (sAA). In the blood, in turn, we can distinguish serotonin, brain-derived serum neurotrophic factor (BDNF), cortisol, and microRNA. Structural changes in the amygdala and hippocampus are promising neuroimaging markers, while in CSF, potential markers include oxytocin and 5-Hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA). Unfortunately, research in the field of biomarkers is hampered by insufficient knowledge about the etiopathogenesis of anxiety disorders, the significant heterogeneity of anxiety disorders, frequent comorbidities, and low specificity of biomarkers. The development of appropriate biomarker panels and their assessment using new approaches may have the prospective to overcome the above-mentioned obstacles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders)
Show Figures

Figure 1

26 pages, 1117 KiB  
Review
Potential Role of L-Carnitine in Autism Spectrum Disorder
by Alina Kępka, Agnieszka Ochocińska, Sylwia Chojnowska, Małgorzata Borzym-Kluczyk, Ewa Skorupa, Małgorzata Knaś and Napoleon Waszkiewicz
J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10(6), 1202; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10061202 - 13 Mar 2021
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 5210
Abstract
L-carnitine plays an important role in the functioning of the central nervous system, and especially in the mitochondrial metabolism of fatty acids. Altered carnitine metabolism, abnormal fatty acid metabolism in patients with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has been documented. ASD is a complex [...] Read more.
L-carnitine plays an important role in the functioning of the central nervous system, and especially in the mitochondrial metabolism of fatty acids. Altered carnitine metabolism, abnormal fatty acid metabolism in patients with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has been documented. ASD is a complex heterogeneous neurodevelopmental condition that is usually diagnosed in early childhood. Patients with ASD require careful classification as this heterogeneous clinical category may include patients with an intellectual disability or high functioning, epilepsy, language impairments, or associated Mendelian genetic conditions. L-carnitine participates in the long-chain oxidation of fatty acids in the brain, stimulates acetylcholine synthesis (donor of the acyl groups), stimulates expression of growth-associated protein-43, prevents cell apoptosis and neuron damage and stimulates neurotransmission. Determination of L-carnitine in serum/plasma and analysis of acylcarnitines in a dried blood spot may be useful in ASD diagnosis and treatment. Changes in the acylcarnitine profiles may indicate potential mitochondrial dysfunctions and abnormal fatty acid metabolism in ASD children. L-carnitine deficiency or deregulation of L-carnitine metabolism in ASD is accompanied by disturbances of other metabolic pathways, e.g., Krebs cycle, the activity of respiratory chain complexes, indicative of mitochondrial dysfunction. Supplementation of L-carnitine may be beneficial to alleviate behavioral and cognitive symptoms in ASD patients. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders)
Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 1352 KiB  
Review
Salivary Biomarkers of Stress, Anxiety and Depression
by Sylwia Chojnowska, Iwona Ptaszyńska-Sarosiek, Alina Kępka, Małgorzata Knaś and Napoleon Waszkiewicz
J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10(3), 517; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10030517 - 01 Feb 2021
Cited by 75 | Viewed by 11468
Abstract
Stress, anxiety and depressive disorders are often characterized by the activation of the stress axis, which results in similar symptoms at some point in these disorders. These disorders are closely related to each other—they occur simultaneously or follow one another. The diagnosis of [...] Read more.
Stress, anxiety and depressive disorders are often characterized by the activation of the stress axis, which results in similar symptoms at some point in these disorders. These disorders are closely related to each other—they occur simultaneously or follow one another. The diagnosis of stress, anxiety and depression is not a perfect procedure currently—it is based on patient observation and an interview with the patient and their family. There are no laboratory tests that would dispel the doubts of the doctor making the diagnosis and allow the appropriate treatment to be implemented as soon as possible. Therefore, this study will review the components of saliva that could be helpful in the quick diagnosis of stress, anxiety and/or depression. Such potential salivary biomarkers could also be useful in monitoring the effectiveness of pharmacological treatment prescribed by a psychiatrist. The following are promising salivary biomarkers of stress, anxiety or depression: cortisol, immunoglobulin A (sIgA), lysozyme, melatonin, α-amylase (sAA), chromogranin A (CgA) and fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2). To the best valuable potential salivary markers of stress, we can include cortisol, lysozyme, sAA and CgA. To differentiate depression from stress, salivary cortisol and melatonin can be helpful. Fluctuations in the concentrations of the above-mentioned substances in saliva indicate a particularly strong relationship with typical human psychological problems, such as stress, depression or anxiety. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders)
Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 2153 KiB  
Review
Cerebrospinal Fluid and Serum d-Serine Levels in Patients with Alzheimer’s Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
by Chun-Hung Chang, Hsiao-Lun Kuo, Wei-Fen Ma and Hsin-Chi Tsai
J. Clin. Med. 2020, 9(12), 3840; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9123840 - 26 Nov 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2490
Abstract
Objective: Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a complex and severe neurodegenerative disease and still lacks effective methods of diagnosis. Dysfunction of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) has been found to be involved in synapse dysfunction and neurotoxicity of AD mechanisms. d-Serine, an NMDAR receptor [...] Read more.
Objective: Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a complex and severe neurodegenerative disease and still lacks effective methods of diagnosis. Dysfunction of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) has been found to be involved in synapse dysfunction and neurotoxicity of AD mechanisms. d-Serine, an NMDAR receptor coagonist, is reported as a potential new biomarker for AD. However, the results of serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) d-serine levels are conflicting. We conducted a meta-analysis to investigate the serum and CSF d-serine levels in patients with AD. Methods: We searched PubMed, the Cochrane central register of controlled trials, and the Cochrane database of systematic reviews for trials that measured d-serine levels both in patients with AD and in controls. We included controlled trials that analyzed d-serine levels in human samples (e.g., serum and CSF). Studies were pooled using a random-effect model for comparisons between AD and control group. We used effect size (ES; expressed as d-serine levels) in each selected meta-analysis to calculate standardized mean difference (SMD). Positive values indicated increased d-serine levels in AD group. We presented results with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). The heterogeneity of the included trials was evaluated through visually inspecting funnel plots and using the I2 statistic. Moderators of effects were explored using metaregression. Results: Seven trials with more than 1186 participants were included in this meta-analysis. d-serine levels in patients with AD were significantly higher than those in controls (SMD = 0.679, 95% CI = 0.335 to 1.022, p < 0.001). Subgroup analyses showed that the AD group had significantly higher d-serine levels in serum and CSF compared with the control group (SMD = 0.566 (serum) and 1.008 (CSF); 95% CI = 0.183 to 0.948 (serum) and 0.168 to 1.849 (CSF)). Moreover, a metaregression revealed a significant negative association between ES and mean mini-mental state examination score in AD group (slope = −0.1203, p = 0.0004). Conclusions: Our results revealed higher d-serine levels in the serum and CSF of patients with AD relative to the controls. Further studies with a larger sample size and longer follow-up are recommended to clarify this association. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders)
Show Figures

Figure 1

54 pages, 2172 KiB  
Review
Peripheral Markers of Depression
by Aleksander Nobis, Daniel Zalewski and Napoleon Waszkiewicz
J. Clin. Med. 2020, 9(12), 3793; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9123793 - 24 Nov 2020
Cited by 99 | Viewed by 9905
Abstract
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is a leading cause of disability worldwide, creating a high medical and socioeconomic burden. There is a growing interest in the biological underpinnings of depression, which are reflected by altered levels of biological markers. Among others, enhanced inflammation has [...] Read more.
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is a leading cause of disability worldwide, creating a high medical and socioeconomic burden. There is a growing interest in the biological underpinnings of depression, which are reflected by altered levels of biological markers. Among others, enhanced inflammation has been reported in MDD, as reflected by increased concentrations of inflammatory markers—C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-α and soluble interleukin-2 receptor. Oxidative and nitrosative stress also plays a role in the pathophysiology of MDD. Notably, increased levels of lipid peroxidation markers are characteristic of MDD. Dysregulation of the stress axis, along with increased cortisol levels, have also been reported in MDD. Alterations in growth factors, with a significant decrease in brain-derived neurotrophic factor and an increase in fibroblast growth factor-2 and insulin-like growth factor-1 concentrations have also been found in MDD. Finally, kynurenine metabolites, increased glutamate and decreased total cholesterol also hold promise as reliable biomarkers for MDD. Research in the field of MDD biomarkers is hindered by insufficient understanding of MDD etiopathogenesis, substantial heterogeneity of the disorder, common co-morbidities and low specificity of biomarkers. The construction of biomarker panels and their evaluation with use of new technologies may have the potential to overcome the above mentioned obstacles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders)
Show Figures

Figure 1

26 pages, 736 KiB  
Review
Diagnostic Utility of Selected Serum Dementia Biomarkers: Amyloid β-40, Amyloid β-42, Tau Protein, and YKL-40: A Review
by Karolina Wilczyńska and Napoleon Waszkiewicz
J. Clin. Med. 2020, 9(11), 3452; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9113452 - 27 Oct 2020
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3564
Abstract
Introduction: Dementia is a group of disorders that causes dysfunctions in human cognitive and operating functions. Currently, it is not possible to conduct a fast, low-invasive dementia diagnostic process with the use of peripheral blood biomarkers, however, there is a great deal of [...] Read more.
Introduction: Dementia is a group of disorders that causes dysfunctions in human cognitive and operating functions. Currently, it is not possible to conduct a fast, low-invasive dementia diagnostic process with the use of peripheral blood biomarkers, however, there is a great deal of research in progress covering this subject. Research on dementia biomarkers in serum validates anticipated health and economic benefits from early screening tests. Biomarkers are also essential for improving the process of developing new drugs. Methods: The result analysis, of current studies on selected biomarker concentrations (Aβ40, Aβ42, t-tau, and YKL-40) and their combination in the serum of patients with dementia and mild cognitive disorders, involved a search for papers available in Medline, PubMed, and Web of Science databases published from 2000 to 2020. Results: The results of conducted cross-sectional studies comparing Aβ40, Aβ42, and Aβ42/Aβ40 among people with cognitive disorders and a control group are incoherent. Most of the analyzed papers showed an increase in t-tau concentration in diagnosed Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients’ serum, whereas results of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) groups did not differ from the control groups. In several papers on the concentration of YKL-40 and t-tau/Aβ42 ratio, the results were promising. To date, several studies have only covered the field of biomarker concentrations in dementia disorders other than AD. Conclusions: Insufficient amyloid marker test repeatability may result either from imperfection of the used laboratorial techniques or inadequate selection of control groups with their comorbidities. On the basis of current knowledge, t-tau, t-tau/Aβ42, and YKL-40 seem to be promising candidates as biomarkers of cognitive disorders in serum. YKL-40 seems to be a more useful biomarker in early MCI diagnostics, whereas t-tau can be used as a marker of progress of prodromal states in mild AD. Due to the insignificant number of studies conducted to date among patients with dementia disorders other than AD, it is not possible to make a sound assessment of their usefulness in dementia differential diagnostics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Markers of Psychiatric Disorders)
Show Figures

Figure 1

Back to TopTop