Research

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18 pages, 1087 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Parents Rate Problematic Video Streaming in Adolescents: Conceptualization and External Assessment of a New Clinical Phenomenon Based on the ICD-11 Criteria of Gaming Disorder

by Kerstin Paschke, Ann-Kathrin Napp and Rainer Thomasius

J. Clin. Med. 2023, 12(3), 1010; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm12031010 - 28 Jan 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1682

Abstract

In recent years, video streaming (VS) increased substantially. Adolescents are at significant risk of presenting problematic VS patterns associated with a spectrum of mental-health difficulties. Because VS platforms rely on similar mechanisms as digital games, the ICD-11 criteria for Gaming Disorder (GD) have [...] Read more.

In recent years, video streaming (VS) increased substantially. Adolescents are at significant risk of presenting problematic VS patterns associated with a spectrum of mental-health difficulties. Because VS platforms rely on similar mechanisms as digital games, the ICD-11 criteria for Gaming Disorder (GD) have been successfully implemented to measure Streaming Disorder (StrD) in adolescents. For proper diagnoses, external rating scales are urgently required in addition to self-reports. The Streaming Disorder Scale for Parents (STREDIS-P) was created and validated in a representative sample of n = 891 adolescent-parent dyads. Mental health problems were assessed with standardized instruments. Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to examine the underlying factor structure. Cutoff scores were determined using ROC analysis. Accordance between parental and adolescents’ self-ratings was calculated. Consistent with the results of previous validation studies for screening instruments assessing similar phenomena based on ICD-11-GD criteria, two factors, cognitive-behavioral symptoms and negative consequences, were confirmed. STREDIS-P demonstrated good to excellent internal consistency, criterion validity, and discriminatory power. Accordance with adolescents’ self-ratings was moderate. STREDIS-P is the first screening tool for assessing StrD in adolescents by parental ratings. It is highly relevant for conceptualizing a new phenomenon in clinical routine and academic research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gambling, Gaming and Other Behavioural Addictions)

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14 pages, 1621 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Worsened Anxiety and Loneliness Influenced Gaming and Gambling during the COVID-19 Pandemic

by Mohamed S. Mohamed, Gull Rukh, Helgi B. Schiöth, Sofia Vadlin, Susanne Olofsdotter, Cecilia Åslund and Kent W. Nilsson

J. Clin. Med. 2023, 12(1), 249; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm12010249 - 29 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2546

Abstract

Aim: To study the prevalence and patterns of problematic gaming and gambling during the COVID-19 pandemic and the association with psychiatric traits and major types of anxiety categories. Method: 1067 young adults participated in both wave 3 (2018) and wave 4 (2021) of [...] Read more.

Aim: To study the prevalence and patterns of problematic gaming and gambling during the COVID-19 pandemic and the association with psychiatric traits and major types of anxiety categories. Method: 1067 young adults participated in both wave 3 (2018) and wave 4 (2021) of the SALVe Cohort. Associations with psychiatric symptoms and anxiety were examined using logistic regression and Chi-square tests. Results: Problematic gaming decreased by 1.3 percentage points to 23.2% since the start of the pandemic, while problematic gambling increased by 0.9 percentage points to 6.5% in w4. Average time spent playing video games/day decreased from 2.2 h (w3) to 1.7 h (w4), while increases in gaming activity were associated with worsened feelings of loneliness (p = 0.002), depression (p < 0.001), and anxiety (p < 0.01) during the pandemic. Predictors for problematic gaming at w4 were previous problematic gaming and social anxiety (p = < 0.001 and 0.01, respectively). Moreover, previous problem gambling also predicted problem gambling at w4 p < 0.001. All anxiety categories were associated with both problematic gaming and gambling when adjusted for age and sex. However, after adjusting for depression and insomnia, social anxiety was associated with problematic gaming (p < 0.001), while panic was associated with problem gambling (p < 0.001). Conclusion: Overall, problematic gaming has decreased since the start of the pandemic, while problem gambling has increased. Worsened feelings of loneliness, depression, and anxiety during the pandemic are associated with increased gaming. Moreover, the association between problematic gaming and gambling and anxiety is independent of depression and sleep problems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gambling, Gaming and Other Behavioural Addictions)

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12 pages, 706 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Altered Resting-State Network in Adolescents with Problematic Internet Use

by Kristiana Siste, Jacub Pandelaki, Jun Miyata, Naoya Oishi, Kosuke Tsurumi, Hironobu Fujiwara, Toshiya Murai, Martina Wiwie Nasrun, Tjhin Wiguna, Saptawati Bardosono, Rini Sekartini, Riza Sarasvita, Belinda Julivia Murtani, Lee Thung Sen and Karina Kalani Firdaus

J. Clin. Med. 2022, 11(19), 5838; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11195838 - 01 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1866

Abstract

Problematic internet use (PIU) is increasingly recognized as a mental health concern, particularly among adolescents. The resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) of the triple-network model has been described inconsistently in PIU. Using resting-state fMRI (rsFMRI) and hypothesizing a lower rsFC between default mode (DMN) [...] Read more.

Problematic internet use (PIU) is increasingly recognized as a mental health concern, particularly among adolescents. The resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) of the triple-network model has been described inconsistently in PIU. Using resting-state fMRI (rsFMRI) and hypothesizing a lower rsFC between default mode (DMN) and central executive networks (CEN) but a higher rsFC within the salience network (SN), this study scrutinized the neural substrates of PIU adolescents. A total of 30 adolescents with PIU and 30 control subjects underwent rsFMRI. The severity of PIU was evaluated by the Internet Addiction Test. Additionally, personality traits as well as emotional and behavioral problems were evaluated by the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) and the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), respectively. Focusing on the DMN, SN, and CEN, we compared rsFC values between PIU and the control. Subsequently, within the combined group of subjects, TCI and SDQ correlation and mediation effects were investigated. Higher rsFC values of the left lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC(L)) with the left anterior insula (aIns(L)) were observed for PIU than for the control, while rsFCs of the LPFC(L) with the medial PFC (MPFC), LPFC(L), as well as with the right lateral parietal cortex (LP(R)) were lower for PIU. Among these significant group differences, the rsFC between the LPFC(L) and MPFC was mediated by emotional symptoms (standardized β = −0.12, 95% CI −0.29, −0.0052). The dysfunctional attention switching and incentive salience regulated by the SN were implicated as being a neural correlate of PIU, and this relationship would in part be explained by the emotional dysregulation associated with PIU in adolescents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gambling, Gaming and Other Behavioural Addictions)

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14 pages, 1079 KiB

Open AccessArticle

From Emotional (Dys)Regulation to Internet Addiction: A Mediation Model of Problematic Social Media Use among Italian Young Adults

by Alessandro Quaglieri, Silvia Biondi, Paolo Roma, Manuel Varchetta, Angelo Fraschetti, Jessica Burrai, Giulia Lausi, Manuel Martí-Vilar, Francisco González-Sala, Alberto Di Domenico, Anna Maria Giannini and Emanuela Mari

J. Clin. Med. 2022, 11(1), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11010188 - 30 Dec 2021

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4833

Abstract

Internet addiction (IA) has mostly been investigated with the fear of missing out and difficulties in emotional regulation. The present study examined the link between IA and variables related to problematic social media use (i.e., fear of missing out, social media addiction), together [...] Read more.

Internet addiction (IA) has mostly been investigated with the fear of missing out and difficulties in emotional regulation. The present study examined the link between IA and variables related to problematic social media use (i.e., fear of missing out, social media addiction), together with emotional (dys)regulation and personality traits, providing new insights and an integrated assessment of IA. In total, 397 participants, aged 18–35 years (M = 22.00; SD = 3.83), were administered a set of questionnaires pertaining to IA, problematic social media use, emotional (dys)regulation, and personality traits. Pearson’s correlations showed significant associations between IA and the investigated variables, and the tested mediation model highlighted the crucial role played by emotional (dys)regulation in the fear of missing out and problematic use of social networks. Overall, the findings provide support for a new integrated model for understanding the features, predictors, and risk factors of IA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gambling, Gaming and Other Behavioural Addictions)

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19 pages, 310 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Validation of the RAFFLE: A Measure of Reasons and Facilitators for Loot Box Engagement

by Joanne Lloyd, Laura Louise Nicklin, Stuart Gordon Spicer, Chris Fullwood, Maria Uther, Daniel P. Hinton, Jonathan Parke, Helen Lloyd and James Close

J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10(24), 5949; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10245949 - 18 Dec 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3628

Abstract

Qualitative studies have identified a diverse array of motivations for purchasing items within video games through chance-based mechanisms (i.e., “loot boxes”). Given that some individuals—particularly those at risk of disordered gaming and/or gambling—are prone to over-involvement with loot box purchasing, it is important [...] Read more.

Qualitative studies have identified a diverse array of motivations for purchasing items within video games through chance-based mechanisms (i.e., “loot boxes”). Given that some individuals—particularly those at risk of disordered gaming and/or gambling—are prone to over-involvement with loot box purchasing, it is important to have a reliable, valid means of measuring the role of different motivations in driving purchasing behaviour. Building on prior qualitative research, this paper reports the development and validation of the “RAFFLE” scale, to measure the Reasons and Facilitators for Loot box Engagement. A 23-item, seven-factor scale was developed through cognitive interviews (n = 25) followed by two surveys of UK-based gamers who purchase loot boxes; analysed via exploratory (n = 503) and confirmatory (n = 1495) factor analysis, respectively. Subscales encompassed “enhancement’; “progression’; “social pressure’; “distraction/compulsion’; “altruism’; “fear of missing out’; and “resale”. The scale showed good criterion and construct validity (correlating well with measures of loot box engagement; the risky loot box index (r = 0.63) and monthly self-reported spend (r = 0.38)), and good internal validity (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.84). Parallels with, and divergence from, motivations for related activities of gaming and gambling, and alignment with broader theoretical models of motivation, are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gambling, Gaming and Other Behavioural Addictions)

26 pages, 662 KiB

Open AccessArticle

GamblingLess: A Randomised Trial Comparing Guided and Unguided Internet-Based Gambling Interventions

by Nicki A. Dowling, Stephanie S. Merkouris, Simone N. Rodda, David Smith, Stephanie Aarsman, Tiffany Lavis, Dan I. Lubman, David W. Austin, John A. Cunningham, Malcolm W. Battersby and Seung Chul O

J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10(11), 2224; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10112224 - 21 May 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3518

Abstract

There is little evidence relating to the effects of adding guidance to internet-based gambling interventions. The primary aim was to compare the effectiveness of an online self-directed cognitive-behavioural gambling program (GamblingLess) with and without therapist-delivered guidance. It was hypothesised that, compared [...] Read more.

There is little evidence relating to the effects of adding guidance to internet-based gambling interventions. The primary aim was to compare the effectiveness of an online self-directed cognitive-behavioural gambling program (GamblingLess) with and without therapist-delivered guidance. It was hypothesised that, compared to the unguided intervention, the guided intervention would result in superior improvements in gambling symptom severity, urges, frequency, expenditure, psychological distress, quality of life and help-seeking. A two-arm, parallel-group, randomised trial with pragmatic features and three post-baseline evaluations (8 weeks, 12 weeks, 24 months) was conducted with 206 gamblers (106 unguided; 101 guided). Participants in both conditions reported significant improvements in gambling symptom severity, urges, frequency, expenditure, and psychological distress across the evaluation period, even after using intention-to-treat analyses and controlling for other low- and high-intensity help-seeking, as well as clinically significant changes in gambling symptom severity (69% recovered/improved). The guided intervention resulted in additional improvements to urges and frequency, within-group change in quality of life, and somewhat higher rates of clinically significant change (77% cf. 61%). These findings, which support the delivery of this intervention, suggest that guidance may offer some advantages but further research is required to establish when and for whom human support adds value. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gambling, Gaming and Other Behavioural Addictions)

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23 pages, 1382 KiB

Open AccessArticle

“It’s the Attraction of Winning That Draws You in”—A Qualitative Investigation of Reasons and Facilitators for Videogame Loot Box Engagement in UK Gamers

by Laura Louise Nicklin, Stuart Gordon Spicer, James Close, Jonathan Parke, Oliver Smith, Thomas Raymen, Helen Lloyd and Joanne Lloyd

J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10(10), 2103; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10102103 - 13 May 2021

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 6503

Abstract

Excessive engagement with (increasingly prevalent) loot boxes within games has consistently been linked with disordered gambling and/or gaming. The importance of recognising and managing potential risks associated with loot box involvement means understanding contributing factors is a pressing research priority. Given that motivations [...] Read more.

Excessive engagement with (increasingly prevalent) loot boxes within games has consistently been linked with disordered gambling and/or gaming. The importance of recognising and managing potential risks associated with loot box involvement means understanding contributing factors is a pressing research priority. Given that motivations for gaming and gambling have been informative in understanding risky engagement with those behaviours, this qualitative study investigated motivations for buying loot boxes, through in-depth interviews with 28 gamers from across the UK. A reflexive thematic analysis categorised reasons for buying into seven “themes”; opening experience; value of box contents; game-related elements; social influences; emotive/impulsive influences; fear of missing out; triggers/facilitators. These themes are described in detail and discussed in relation to the existing literature and motivation theories. This study contributes to understanding ways in which digital items within loot boxes can be highly valued by purchasers, informing the debate around parallels with gambling. Findings that certain motivations were disproportionately endorsed by participants with symptoms of problematic gambling has potential implications for policy and warrants further study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gambling, Gaming and Other Behavioural Addictions)

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20 pages, 871 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ecological Momentary Assessment of the Relationship between Positive Outcome Expectancies and Gambling Behaviour

by Nicki A. Dowling, Stephanie S. Merkouris and Kimberley Spence

J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10(8), 1709; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10081709 - 15 Apr 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2157

Abstract

Relapse prevention models suggest that positive outcome expectancies can constitute situational determinants of relapse episodes that interact with other factors to determine the likelihood of relapse. The primary aims were to examine reciprocal relationships between situational positive gambling outcome expectancies and gambling behaviour [...] Read more.

Relapse prevention models suggest that positive outcome expectancies can constitute situational determinants of relapse episodes that interact with other factors to determine the likelihood of relapse. The primary aims were to examine reciprocal relationships between situational positive gambling outcome expectancies and gambling behaviour and moderators of these relationships. An online survey and a 28 day Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) were administered to 109 past-month gamblers (84% with gambling problems). EMA measures included outcome expectancies (enjoyment/arousal, self-enhancement, money), self-efficacy, craving, negative emotional state, interpersonal conflict, social pressure, positive emotional state, financial pressures, and gambling behaviour (episodes, expenditure). Pre-EMA measures included problem gambling severity, motives, psychological distress, coping strategies, and outcome expectancies. No reciprocal relationships between EMA outcome expectancies and gambling behaviour (episodes, expenditure) were identified. Moderations predicting gambling episodes revealed: (1) cravings and problem gambling exacerbated effects of enjoyment/arousal expectancies; (2) positive emotional state and positive reframing coping exacerbated effects of self-enhancement expectancies; and (3) instrumental social support buffered effects of money expectancies. Positive outcome expectancies therefore constitute situational determinants of gambling behaviour, but only when they interact with other factors. All pre-EMA expectancies predicted problem gambling severity (OR = 1.61–3.25). Real-time interventions addressing gambling outcome expectancies tailored to vulnerable gamblers are required. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gambling, Gaming and Other Behavioural Addictions)

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13 pages, 998 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adult Gambling Problems and Histories of Mental Health and Substance Use: Findings from a Prospective Multi-Wave Australian Cohort Study

by Stephanie S. Merkouris, Christopher J. Greenwood, George J. Youssef, Primrose Letcher, Suzanne Vassallo, Nicki A. Dowling and Craig A. Olsson

J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10(7), 1406; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10071406 - 01 Apr 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2226

Abstract

Little is known about the cumulative effect of adolescent and young adult mental health difficulties and substance use problems on gambling behaviour in adulthood. We use data from one of Australia’s longest running studies of social and emotional development to examine the extent [...] Read more.

Little is known about the cumulative effect of adolescent and young adult mental health difficulties and substance use problems on gambling behaviour in adulthood. We use data from one of Australia’s longest running studies of social and emotional development to examine the extent to which: (1) mental health symptoms (depressive and anxiety symptoms) and substance use (weekly binge drinking, tobacco, and cannabis use) from adolescence (13–18 years) into young adulthood (19–28 years) predict gambling problems in adulthood (31–32 years); and (2) risk relationships differ by sex. Analyses were based on responses from 1365 adolescent and young adult participants, spanning seven waves of data collection (1998–2014). Persistent adolescent to young adult binge drinking, tobacco use and cannabis use predicted gambling at age 31–32 years (OR = 2.30–3.42). Binge drinking and tobacco use in young adulthood also predicted gambling at age 31–32 years (OR = 2.04–2.54). Prior mental health symptoms were not associated with gambling and no risk relationships differed by sex. Findings suggest that gambling problems in adulthood may be related to the earlier development of other addictive behaviours, and that interventions targeting substance use from adolescence to young adulthood may confer additional gains in preventing later gambling behaviours. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gambling, Gaming and Other Behavioural Addictions)

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9 pages, 1139 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Opportunity Costs or Not? Validating the Short Gambling Harm Screen against a Set of “Unimpeachable” Negative Impacts

by Cailem Murray Boyle, Matthew Browne, Matthew Rockloff and Tracy Flenady

J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10(3), 549; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10030549 - 02 Feb 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2476

Abstract

Assessing the harmful consequences of gambling is an area of active investigation. One measure intended to capture gambling-related harm is the 10-item short gambling harm screen (SGHS). Although good psychometric properties have been reported, it has been suggested that the screen’s less severe [...] Read more.

Assessing the harmful consequences of gambling is an area of active investigation. One measure intended to capture gambling-related harm is the 10-item short gambling harm screen (SGHS). Although good psychometric properties have been reported, it has been suggested that the screen’s less severe probes may not represent genuinely harmful consequences, but rather may reflect rational opportunity costs. Consequently, it has been argued that the screen may lead to overestimation of the extent of gambling-related harm in the population. The current study sought to examine the psychometric performance of three less severe suspect items in the SGHS. Associations between each of these items and a specially constructed scale of relatively severe “unimpeachable” gambling harms were calculated from archival data from 5551 Australian and New Zealand gamblers. All three suspect items, both individually and upon aggregation, predicted greater endorsement of “unimpeachable” harms, and indicated the presence of gambling problems. Moreover, the SGHS as a whole is highly correlated with “unimpeachable” gambling harms. Including suspect items in the SGHS was found to improve predictions of low- and moderate-risk gambling status, but slightly decreased predictions of severe gambling problems. The results are inconsistent with the notion that SGHS harm probes capture either inconsequential consequences or opportunity costs. They confirm prior findings that harm symptomatology is unidimensional, and that the report of multiple more prevalent, but less severe, harms serves as an effective indicator of the spectrum of experienced harm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gambling, Gaming and Other Behavioural Addictions)

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14 pages, 443 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Self-Efficacy and Clinical Characteristics in Casual Gamers Compared to Excessive Gaming Users and Non-Gamers in Young Adults

by Sun Ju Chung, Joon Hwan Jang, Ji Yoon Lee, Aruem Choi, Bo Mi Kim, Min Kyung Park, Myung Hun Jung and Jung-Seok Choi

J. Clin. Med. 2020, 9(9), 2720; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9092720 - 22 Aug 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4605

Abstract

This study investigated differences in the self-efficacy and clinical characteristics which were found relevant to addictive behaviors in young adults according to time spent gaming. To our knowledge, this is the first study to explore self-efficacy in casual gamers relative to patients with [...] Read more.

This study investigated differences in the self-efficacy and clinical characteristics which were found relevant to addictive behaviors in young adults according to time spent gaming. To our knowledge, this is the first study to explore self-efficacy in casual gamers relative to patients with internet gaming disorder (IGD) and non-gamers. In total, 158 young adults participated in this study and were divided into three groups: excessive gamers, who were diagnosed with IGD based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder-fifth edition (DSM-5, n = 71); casual gamers, who played games regularly but did not meet the criteria for IGD (n = 37); and non-gamers/controls, who did not engage in gaming (n = 50). All participants completed self-administered questionnaires, including measures of self-efficacy and clinical features such as the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale, Beck Depression Inventory, Beck Anxiety Inventory, Behavioral Activation/Inhibition Systems, aggression, and psychosocial well-being. There were significant differences in the self-efficacy according to the extent of gaming (excessive gamers < casual gamers < non-gamers). In addition, aggression, impulsivity, depression, anxiety, level of stress, and behavioral inhibition system scores were significantly higher in excessive gamers than in casual gamers and non-gamers. These findings showed that individuals who spend more time playing games tend to have lower self-efficacy. Our study suggests that self-efficacy may protect against or constitute a risk of excessive gaming, particularly among casual gamers. It is necessary to pay attention to enhancing psychological well-being through self-efficacy to prevent addiction in young adult gamers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gambling, Gaming and Other Behavioural Addictions)

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Review

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13 pages, 1893 KiB

Open AccessReview

Current Status of Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) in Japan: New Lifestyle-Related Disease in Children and Adolescents

by George Imataka, Ryoichi Sakuta, Akira Maehashi and Shigemi Yoshihara

J. Clin. Med. 2022, 11(15), 4566; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11154566 - 04 Aug 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4185

Abstract

The World Health Organization recognizes internet gaming disorder (IGD) as a disorder that causes problems in daily life as a result of excessive interest in online games. The causes of IGD have become more apparent in recent years. Because of prolonged exposure to [...] Read more.

The World Health Organization recognizes internet gaming disorder (IGD) as a disorder that causes problems in daily life as a result of excessive interest in online games. The causes of IGD have become more apparent in recent years. Because of prolonged exposure to games, the mechanisms controlling the reward system, such as the prefrontal cortex, limbic system, and amygdala of the cerebrum, do not function properly in IGD. This mechanism is similar to that of various behavioral addictions, such as gambling addiction. IGD is particularly risky in children and adolescents because it easily causes brain dysfunction, especially in the developing brain. IGD should be regarded as a new lifestyle-related disease in younger individuals, and lifestyle modifications, including counseling and family therapy, are critical for its management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gambling, Gaming and Other Behavioural Addictions)

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19 pages, 750 KiB

Open AccessReview

Sexual Differences in Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD): From Psychological Features to Neuroanatomical Networks

by Marilena Marraudino, Brigitta Bonaldo, Benedetto Vitiello, Giovanna C. Bergui and GianCarlo Panzica

J. Clin. Med. 2022, 11(4), 1018; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11041018 - 16 Feb 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4483

Abstract

Internet gaming disorder (IGD) has been included in the 2013 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) as a condition in need of further study, and gaming disorder was recognized by the World Health Organization as a mental disorder in the International [...] Read more.

Internet gaming disorder (IGD) has been included in the 2013 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) as a condition in need of further study, and gaming disorder was recognized by the World Health Organization as a mental disorder in the International Classification of Disease (ICD-11) of 2018. IGD has different characteristics in the two sexes and is more prevalent in males than females. However, even if the female gamer population is constantly growing, the majority of available studies analyzed only males, or the data were not analyzed by sex. To better elucidate sex differences in IGD, we selectively reviewed research publications that evaluated IGD separately for males and females collected in approximately one hundred publications over the past 20 years. The available data in this narrative review indicate that IGD is strongly dimorphic by sex for both its psychological features and the involvement of different brain areas. Impulsivity, low self-control, anxiety, emotion dysregulation, and depression are some of the psychological features associated with IGD that show a sex dimorphism. At the same time, IGD and its psychological alterations are strongly correlated to dimorphic functional characteristics in relevant brain areas, as evidenced by fMRI. More research is needed to better understand sex differences in IGD. Animal models could help to elucidate the neurological basis of this disorder. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gambling, Gaming and Other Behavioural Addictions)

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