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Editor’s Choice Articles

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

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13 pages, 2070 KiB  
Article
Factors That Influence Base-Catalyzed Thiol-Ene Hydrogel Synthesis
by Nolan Morrison and Brandon M. Vogel
Gels 2023, 9(11), 917; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9110917 - 20 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1676
Abstract
Injectable, localized drug delivery using hydrogels made from ethoxylated trimethylolpropane tri-3-mercaptopropionate (ETTMP) and poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) has shown great potential due to these hydrogels’ ability to exhibit non-swelling behavior and tunable drug release properties. However, current synthesis methods in the literature suffer [...] Read more.
Injectable, localized drug delivery using hydrogels made from ethoxylated trimethylolpropane tri-3-mercaptopropionate (ETTMP) and poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) has shown great potential due to these hydrogels’ ability to exhibit non-swelling behavior and tunable drug release properties. However, current synthesis methods in the literature suffer from poor ETTMP solubility in water, slow gelation times exceeding 20 min, and a lack of reproducibility. To address these limitations, we have developed a reliable synthesis procedure and conducted a sensitivity analysis of key variables. This has enabled us to synthesize ETTMP-PEGDA hydrogels in a polymer concentration range of 15 to 90 wt% with gelation times of less than 2 min and moduli ranging from 3.5 to 190 kPa. We overcame two synthesis limitations by identifying the impact of residual mercaptopropionic acid and alumina purification column height on gelation time and by premixing ETTMP and PEGDA to overcome low ETTMP solubility in water. Our ETTMP-PEGDA mixture can be stored at −20 °C for up to 2 months without crosslinking, allowing easy storage and shipment. These and previous results demonstrate the potential of ETTMP-PEGDA hydrogels as promising candidates for injectable, localized drug delivery with tunable drug release properties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Chemistry and Physics of Hydrogels)
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22 pages, 3289 KiB  
Review
Exploring the Potential of Artificial Intelligence for Hydrogel Development—A Short Review
by Irina Negut and Bogdan Bita
Gels 2023, 9(11), 845; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9110845 - 25 Oct 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1948
Abstract
AI and ML have emerged as transformative tools in various scientific domains, including hydrogel design. This work explores the integration of AI and ML techniques in the realm of hydrogel development, highlighting their significance in enhancing the design, characterisation, and optimisation of hydrogels [...] Read more.
AI and ML have emerged as transformative tools in various scientific domains, including hydrogel design. This work explores the integration of AI and ML techniques in the realm of hydrogel development, highlighting their significance in enhancing the design, characterisation, and optimisation of hydrogels for diverse applications. We introduced the concept of AI train hydrogel design, underscoring its potential to decode intricate relationships between hydrogel compositions, structures, and properties from complex data sets. In this work, we outlined classical physical and chemical techniques in hydrogel design, setting the stage for AI/ML advancements. These methods provide a foundational understanding for the subsequent AI-driven innovations. Numerical and analytical methods empowered by AI/ML were also included. These computational tools enable predictive simulations of hydrogel behaviour under varying conditions, aiding in property customisation. We also emphasised AI’s impact, elucidating its role in rapid material discovery, precise property predictions, and optimal design. ML techniques like neural networks and support vector machines that expedite pattern recognition and predictive modelling using vast datasets, advancing hydrogel formulation discovery are also presented. AI and ML’s have a transformative influence on hydrogel design. AI and ML have revolutionised hydrogel design by expediting material discovery, optimising properties, reducing costs, and enabling precise customisation. These technologies have the potential to address pressing healthcare and biomedical challenges, offering innovative solutions for drug delivery, tissue engineering, wound healing, and more. By harmonising computational insights with classical techniques, researchers can unlock unprecedented hydrogel potentials, tailoring solutions for diverse applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design of Polymeric Hydrogels Biomaterials)
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13 pages, 1537 KiB  
Review
Compendium of Safety Regulatory for Safe Applications of Aerogels
by Antonella Caterina Boccia, Alfio Pulvirenti, Carlos A. García-González, Fabia Grisi and Monica Neagu
Gels 2023, 9(11), 842; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9110842 - 24 Oct 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1694
Abstract
An increasing number of aerogels as nanostructured highly porous materials are entering the market in every day products, with an attractive portfolio of properties for emerging applications ranging from health care and leisure to electronics, cosmetics, energy, agriculture, food and environmental. However, the [...] Read more.
An increasing number of aerogels as nanostructured highly porous materials are entering the market in every day products, with an attractive portfolio of properties for emerging applications ranging from health care and leisure to electronics, cosmetics, energy, agriculture, food and environmental. However, the novelty in properties and forms of aerogels makes the development of a legislative framework particularly challenging for ensuring the safe development and use of nano-enabled products. The presented safety regulatory Compendium intends to share knowledge with the international aerogels community, as well as end-users and stakeholders, on the regulatory and safe handling procedures, as best safety practices, to be followed during the production process, handling, transport and end-use of aerogel-based formulations to mitigate human and environmental risks considering lack of data availability for this purpose in general. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Silica Xero- and Aerogels: From Synthesis to Structure–Activity Relationship)
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23 pages, 945 KiB  
Review
Current Advances in Stimuli-Responsive Hydrogels as Smart Drug Delivery Carriers
by Yulong Zhang and Benjamin M. Wu
Gels 2023, 9(10), 838; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9100838 - 22 Oct 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2265
Abstract
In recent years, significant advancements in the field of advanced materials and hydrogel engineering have enabled the design and fabrication of smart hydrogels and nanogels that exhibit sensitivity to specific signals or pathological conditions, leading to a wide range of applications in drug [...] Read more.
In recent years, significant advancements in the field of advanced materials and hydrogel engineering have enabled the design and fabrication of smart hydrogels and nanogels that exhibit sensitivity to specific signals or pathological conditions, leading to a wide range of applications in drug delivery and disease treatment. This comprehensive review aims to provide an in-depth analysis of the stimuli-responsive principles exhibited by smart hydrogels in response to various triggers, such as pH levels, temperature fluctuations, light exposure, redox conditions, or the presence of specific biomolecules. The functionality and performance characteristics of these hydrogels are highly influenced by both their constituent components and fabrication processes. Key design principles, their applications in disease treatments, challenges, and future prospects were also discussed. Overall, this review aims to contribute to the current understanding of gel-based drug delivery systems and stimulate further research in this rapidly evolving field. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Gels Engineering for Drug Delivery)
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13 pages, 2330 KiB  
Article
Forward Light Scattering of First to Third Generation Vitreous Body Replacement Hydrogels after Surgical Application Compared to Conventional Silicone Oils and Vitreous Body
by Maximilian Hammer, Jonathan Herth, Marcel Muuss, Sonja Schickhardt, Alexander Scheuerle, Ramin Khoramnia, Grzegorz Łabuz, Philipp Uhl and Gerd Uwe Auffarth
Gels 2023, 9(10), 837; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9100837 - 21 Oct 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1208
Abstract
To treat certain vitreoretinal diseases, the vitreous body, a hydrogel composed of mostly collagen and hyaluronic acid, must be removed. After vitrectomy surgery, the vitreous cavity is filled with an endotamponade. Previously, pre-clinical hydrogel-based vitreous body substitutes either made from uncrosslinked monomers (1st [...] Read more.
To treat certain vitreoretinal diseases, the vitreous body, a hydrogel composed of mostly collagen and hyaluronic acid, must be removed. After vitrectomy surgery, the vitreous cavity is filled with an endotamponade. Previously, pre-clinical hydrogel-based vitreous body substitutes either made from uncrosslinked monomers (1st generation), preformed crosslinked polymers (2nd generation), or in situ gelating polymers (3rd generation) have been developed. Forward light scattering is a measure of Stray light induced by optical media, when increased, causing visual disturbance and glare. During pinhole surgery, the hydrogels are injected into the vitreous cavity through a small 23G-cannula. The aim of this study was to assess if and to what extent forward light scattering is induced by vitreous body replacement hydrogels and if Stray light differs between different generations of vitreous body hydrogel replacements due to the different gelation mechanisms and fragmentation during injection. A modified C-Quant setup was used to objectively determine forward light scattering. In this study, we found that the 1st and 3rd generation vitreous body replacements show very low stray light levels even after injection (2.8 +/− 0.4 deg2/sr and 0.2 +/− 0.2 deg2/sr, respectively) as gel fragmentation and generation of interfaces is circumvented. The 2nd generation preformed hydrogels showed a permanent increase in stray light after injection that will most likely lead to symptoms such as glare when used in patients (11.9 +/− 0.9 deg2/sr). Stray light of the 2nd generation hydrogels was 3- and 2-fold increased compared to juvenile and aged vitreous bodies, respectively. In conclusion, this significant downside in the forward light scattering of the 2nd generation hydrogels should be kept in mind when developing vitreous body replacement strategies, as any source of stray light should be minimized in patients with retinal comorbidities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Functional Gel)
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20 pages, 1903 KiB  
Review
Engineered Vesicles and Hydrogel Technologies for Myocardial Regeneration
by Kaitlyn Ghassemi, Keiko Inouye, Tatevik Takhmazyan, Victor Bonavida, Jia-Wei Yang, Natan Roberto de Barros and Finosh G. Thankam
Gels 2023, 9(10), 824; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9100824 - 18 Oct 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1307
Abstract
Increased prevalence of cardiovascular disease and potentially life-threatening complications of myocardial infarction (MI) has led to emerging therapeutic approaches focusing on myocardial regeneration and restoration of physiologic function following infarction. Extracellular vesicle (EV) technology has gained attention owing to the biological potential to [...] Read more.
Increased prevalence of cardiovascular disease and potentially life-threatening complications of myocardial infarction (MI) has led to emerging therapeutic approaches focusing on myocardial regeneration and restoration of physiologic function following infarction. Extracellular vesicle (EV) technology has gained attention owing to the biological potential to modulate cellular immune responses and promote the repair of damaged tissue. Also, EVs are involved in local and distant cellular communication following damage and play an important role in initiating the repair process. Vesicles derived from stem cells and cardiomyocytes (CM) are of particular interest due to their ability to promote cell growth, proliferation, and angiogenesis following MI. Although a promising candidate for myocardial repair, EV technology is limited by the short retention time of vesicles and rapid elimination by the body. There have been several successful attempts to address this shortcoming, which includes hydrogel technology for the sustained bioavailability of EVs. This review discusses and summarizes current understanding regarding EV technology in the context of myocardial repair. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Crosslinked Gels)
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28 pages, 2649 KiB  
Review
Advances in the Development of Nano-Engineered Mechanically Robust Hydrogels for Minimally Invasive Treatment of Bone Defects
by Kulwinder Kaur and Ciara M. Murphy
Gels 2023, 9(10), 809; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9100809 - 10 Oct 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1605
Abstract
Injectable hydrogels were discovered as attractive materials for bone tissue engineering applications given their outstanding biocompatibility, high water content, and versatile fabrication platforms into materials with different physiochemical properties. However, traditional hydrogels suffer from weak mechanical strength, limiting their use in heavy load-bearing [...] Read more.
Injectable hydrogels were discovered as attractive materials for bone tissue engineering applications given their outstanding biocompatibility, high water content, and versatile fabrication platforms into materials with different physiochemical properties. However, traditional hydrogels suffer from weak mechanical strength, limiting their use in heavy load-bearing areas. Thus, the fabrication of mechanically robust injectable hydrogels that are suitable for load-bearing environments is of great interest. Successful material design for bone tissue engineering requires an understanding of the composition and structure of the material chosen, as well as the appropriate selection of biomimetic natural or synthetic materials. This review focuses on recent advancements in materials–design considerations and approaches to prepare mechanically robust injectable hydrogels for bone tissue engineering applications. We outline the materials–design approaches through a selection of materials and fabrication methods. Finally, we discuss unmet needs and current challenges in the development of ideal materials for bone tissue regeneration and highlight emerging strategies in the field. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biosoursed and Bioinspired Gels for Biomedical Applications)
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15 pages, 1521 KiB  
Article
The Development of a Novel Sodium Alginate-Based Edible Active Hydrogel Coating and Its Application on Traditional Greek Spreadable Cheese
by Aris E. Giannakas, Konstantinos Zaharioudakis, Eleni Kollia, Anna Kopsacheili, Learda Avdylaj, Stavros Georgopoulos, Areti Leontiou, Vassilios K. Karabagias, George Kehayias, Efthymia Ragkava, Charalampos Proestos and Constantinos E. Salmas
Gels 2023, 9(10), 807; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9100807 - 07 Oct 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2003
Abstract
The necessity of reducing the greenhouse effect by decreasing the carbon dioxide fingerprint directed the food packaging technology to use biobased raw materials. Alginates, which are derived from brown algae species, are one of the most promising biobased biopolymers for the development of [...] Read more.
The necessity of reducing the greenhouse effect by decreasing the carbon dioxide fingerprint directed the food packaging technology to use biobased raw materials. Alginates, which are derived from brown algae species, are one of the most promising biobased biopolymers for the development of edible active coatings capable of protecting food from oxidation/bacterial spoilage. In this study, sodium alginate, which was plasticized with glycerol and mixed with a biobased thymol/natural halloysite nanohybrid, was used to develop novel edible active coatings. Nanocomposite coatings were also developed in this project by mixing pure halloysite with sodium alginate/glycerol matrix and were used as reference material for comparison reasons. Instrumental analysis indicated a higher compatibility of a thymol/halloysite nanohybrid with a sodium alginate/glycerol matrix compared to pure halloysite with a sodium alginate/glycerol matrix. Increased compatibility resulted in improved tensile properties, water/oxygen barrier properties, and total antioxidant activity. These edible active coatings were applied to traditional Greek spread cheese and showed a reduction in the mesophilic microbial population over one log10 unit (cfu/g) compared to uncoated cheese. Moreover, the reduction in the mesophilic microbial population increased with the increase in halloysite and thymol content, indicating such sodium alginate/glycerol/thymol/halloysite hydrogels as promising edible active coatings for dairy products. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members’ Collection Series: Gel Processing and Engineering)
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22 pages, 2129 KiB  
Review
Stimuli-Responsive Hydrogels for Protein Delivery
by Rafaela Malta, Ana Camila Marques, Paulo Cardoso da Costa and Maria Helena Amaral
Gels 2023, 9(10), 802; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9100802 - 06 Oct 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1585
Abstract
Proteins and peptides are potential therapeutic agents, but their physiochemical properties make their use as drug substances challenging. Hydrogels are hydrophilic polymeric networks that can swell and retain high amounts of water or biological fluids without being dissolved. Due to their biocompatibility, their [...] Read more.
Proteins and peptides are potential therapeutic agents, but their physiochemical properties make their use as drug substances challenging. Hydrogels are hydrophilic polymeric networks that can swell and retain high amounts of water or biological fluids without being dissolved. Due to their biocompatibility, their porous structure, which enables the transport of various peptides and proteins, and their protective effect against degradation, hydrogels have gained prominence as ideal carriers for these molecules’ delivery. Particularly, stimuli-responsive hydrogels exhibit physicochemical transitions in response to subtle modifications in the surrounding environment, leading to the controlled release of entrapped proteins or peptides. This review is focused on the application of these hydrogels in protein and peptide delivery, including a brief overview of therapeutic proteins and types of stimuli-responsive polymers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Functional Gel)
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38 pages, 5898 KiB  
Review
Emerging Advances in Microfluidic Hydrogel Droplets for Tissue Engineering and STEM Cell Mechanobiology
by Mohamad Orabi and Joe F. Lo
Gels 2023, 9(10), 790; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9100790 - 01 Oct 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2011
Abstract
Hydrogel droplets are biodegradable and biocompatible materials with promising applications in tissue engineering, cell encapsulation, and clinical treatments. They represent a well-controlled microstructure to bridge the spatial divide between two-dimensional cell cultures and three-dimensional tissues, toward the recreation of entire organs. The applications [...] Read more.
Hydrogel droplets are biodegradable and biocompatible materials with promising applications in tissue engineering, cell encapsulation, and clinical treatments. They represent a well-controlled microstructure to bridge the spatial divide between two-dimensional cell cultures and three-dimensional tissues, toward the recreation of entire organs. The applications of hydrogel droplets in regenerative medicine require a thorough understanding of microfluidic techniques, the biocompatibility of hydrogel materials, and droplet production and manipulation mechanisms. Although hydrogel droplets were well studied, several emerging advances promise to extend current applications to tissue engineering and beyond. Hydrogel droplets can be designed with high surface-to-volume ratios and a variety of matrix microstructures. Microfluidics provides precise control of the flow patterns required for droplet generation, leading to tight distributions of particle size, shape, matrix, and mechanical properties in the resultant microparticles. This review focuses on recent advances in microfluidic hydrogel droplet generation. First, the theoretical principles of microfluidics, materials used in fabrication, and new 3D fabrication techniques were discussed. Then, the hydrogels used in droplet generation and their cell and tissue engineering applications were reviewed. Finally, droplet generation mechanisms were addressed, such as droplet production, droplet manipulation, and surfactants used to prevent coalescence. Lastly, we propose that microfluidic hydrogel droplets can enable novel shear-related tissue engineering and regeneration studies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrogel for Tissue Regeneration)
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40 pages, 1970 KiB  
Review
Aerogel-Based Materials in Bone and Cartilage Tissue Engineering—A Review with Future Implications
by István Lázár, Ladislav Čelko and Melita Menelaou
Gels 2023, 9(9), 746; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9090746 - 13 Sep 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1983
Abstract
Aerogels are fascinating solid materials known for their highly porous nanostructure and exceptional physical, chemical, and mechanical properties. They show great promise in various technological and biomedical applications, including tissue engineering, and bone and cartilage substitution. To evaluate the bioactivity of bone substitutes, [...] Read more.
Aerogels are fascinating solid materials known for their highly porous nanostructure and exceptional physical, chemical, and mechanical properties. They show great promise in various technological and biomedical applications, including tissue engineering, and bone and cartilage substitution. To evaluate the bioactivity of bone substitutes, researchers typically conduct in vitro tests using simulated body fluids and specific cell lines, while in vivo testing involves the study of materials in different animal species. In this context, our primary focus is to investigate the applications of different types of aerogels, considering their specific materials, microstructure, and porosity in the field of bone and cartilage tissue engineering. From clinically approved materials to experimental aerogels, we present a comprehensive list and summary of various aerogel building blocks and their biological activities. Additionally, we explore how the complexity of aerogel scaffolds influences their in vivo performance, ranging from simple single-component or hybrid aerogels to more intricate and organized structures. We also discuss commonly used formulation and drying methods in aerogel chemistry, including molding, freeze casting, supercritical foaming, freeze drying, subcritical, and supercritical drying techniques. These techniques play a crucial role in shaping aerogels for specific applications. Alongside the progress made, we acknowledge the challenges ahead and assess the near and far future of aerogel-based hard tissue engineering materials, as well as their potential connection with emerging healing techniques. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aerogel Hybrids and Nanocomposites)
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19 pages, 10628 KiB  
Article
Self-Healing of Pluronic® F127 Hydrogels in the Presence of Various Polysaccharides
by Alexandra Lupu, Luiza Madalina Gradinaru, Daniela Rusu and Maria Bercea
Gels 2023, 9(9), 719; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9090719 - 05 Sep 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1794
Abstract
Thermoresponsive Pluronic® F127 (PL) gels in water were investigated through rheological tests in different shear conditions. The gel strength was tuned with the addition of 1% polysaccharide solution. In the presence of xanthan gum (XG), the viscoelastic behavior of PL-based hydrogels was improved [...] Read more.
Thermoresponsive Pluronic® F127 (PL) gels in water were investigated through rheological tests in different shear conditions. The gel strength was tuned with the addition of 1% polysaccharide solution. In the presence of xanthan gum (XG), the viscoelastic behavior of PL-based hydrogels was improved in aqueous environment, but the rheological behavior was less changed with the addition of XG in PBS solutions, whereas in the presence of 0.1 M NaCl, the viscoelastic parameters decreased. PL micellar networks exhibited a self-healing ability, recovering their initial structure after applying cycles of high strain. The rheological characteristics of the PL hydrogel changed with the addition of 1% polysaccharides (xanthan gum, alginate, κ-carrageenan, gellan, or chitosan). PL/polysaccharide systems form temperature-responsive hydrogels with shear thinning behavior, yield stress, and self-healing ability, being considered a versatile platform for injectable biomaterials or bioinks. Thus, in the presence of xanthan gum in aqueous medium, the gel strength was improved after applying a high strain (the values of elastic modulus increased). The other investigated natural polymers induced specific self-healing behaviors. Good performances were observed with the addition of gellan gum, alginate, and κ-carrageenan, but for high values of strain, the ability to recover the initial structure decreased. A modest self-healing behavior was observed in the presence of chitosan and xanthan gum dissolved in NaCl solution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrogel-Based Novel Biomaterials: Achievements and Prospects)
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20 pages, 10831 KiB  
Article
Composite Hydrogels with Embedded Silver Nanoparticles and Ibuprofen as Wound Dressing
by Irina Popescu, Marieta Constantin, Gheorghe Solcan, Daniela Luminita Ichim, Delia Mihaela Rata, Loredana Horodincu and Carmen Solcan
Gels 2023, 9(8), 654; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9080654 - 14 Aug 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1539
Abstract
The wound healing process is often slowed down as a result of complications from bacterial infections and inflammatory reactions. Therefore, it is necessary to develop dressings with fast antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activity that shorten the wound healing period by promoting cell migration and [...] Read more.
The wound healing process is often slowed down as a result of complications from bacterial infections and inflammatory reactions. Therefore, it is necessary to develop dressings with fast antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activity that shorten the wound healing period by promoting cell migration and proliferation. Chitosan (CS)-based hydrogels have been widely studied for their antibacterial and wound healing capabilities. Herein, we developed a composite hydrogel based on CS and PVA embedding silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) with antibacterial properties and ibuprofen (Ib) as an anti-inflammatory agent. The hydrogel prepared by double physical cross-linking, with oxalic acid and by freeze–thawing, loaded with 0.225 wt.% AgNPs and 0.264 wt.% Ib, displayed good mechanical properties (compressive modulus = 132 kPa), a high swelling degree and sustained drug delivery (in simulated skin conditions). Moreover, the hydrogel showed strong antibacterial activity against S. aureus and K. pneumoniae due to the embedded AgNPs. In vivo, this hydrogel accelerated the wound regeneration process through the enhanced expression of TNF alpha IP8, by activating downstream cascades and supporting the healing process of inflammation; Cox2, which enhances the migration and proliferation of cells involved in re-epithelization and angiogenesis; MHCII, which promotes immune cooperation between local cells, eliminating dead tissue and controlling infection; the intense expression of Col I as a major marker in the tissue granulation process; and αSMA, which marks the presence of myofibroblasts involved in wound closure and indicates ongoing re-epithelization. The results reveal the potential healing effect of CS/PVA/AgNPs/Ib hydrogels and suggest their potential use as wound dressings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Hydrogels for Wound Healing)
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18 pages, 4531 KiB  
Article
Development of Blended Biopolymer-Based Photocatalytic Hydrogel Beads for Adsorption and Photodegradation of Dyes
by Seung Hyeon Weon, Jiwoo Han, Yong-Keun Choi, Saerom Park and Sang Hyun Lee
Gels 2023, 9(8), 630; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9080630 - 05 Aug 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1422
Abstract
Blended biopolymer-based photocatalytic hydrogel beads were synthesized by dissolving the biopolymers in 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate ([Emim][Ac]), adding TiO2, and reconstituting the beads with ethanol. The incorporation of modifying biopolymer significantly enhanced the adsorption capacity of the cellulose/TiO2 beads. Cellulose/carrageenan/TiO2 beads [...] Read more.
Blended biopolymer-based photocatalytic hydrogel beads were synthesized by dissolving the biopolymers in 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate ([Emim][Ac]), adding TiO2, and reconstituting the beads with ethanol. The incorporation of modifying biopolymer significantly enhanced the adsorption capacity of the cellulose/TiO2 beads. Cellulose/carrageenan/TiO2 beads exhibited a 7.0-fold increase in adsorption capacity for methylene blue (MB). In contrast, cellulose/chitosan/TiO2 beads showed a 4.8-fold increase in adsorption capacity for methyl orange (MO) compared with cellulose/TiO2 beads. In addition, cellulose/TiO2 microbeads were prepared through the sol–gel transition of the [Emim][Ac]-in-oil emulsion to enhance photodegradation activity. These microbeads displayed a 4.6-fold higher adsorption capacity and 2.8-fold higher photodegradation activity for MB than the millimeter-sized beads. Furthermore, they exhibited superior dye removal efficiencies for various dyes such as Congo red, MO, MB, crystal violet, and rhodamine B, surpassing the performance of larger beads. To expand the industrial applicability of the microbeads, biopolymer/TiO2 magnetic microbeads were developed by incorporating Fe2O3. These magnetic microbeads outperformed millimeter-sized beads regarding the efficiency and time required for MB removal from aqueous solutions. Furthermore, the physicochemical properties of magnetic microbeads can be easily controlled by adjusting the type of biopolymer modifier, the TiO2 and magnetic particle content, and the ratio of each component based on the target molecule. Therefore, biopolymer-based photocatalytic magnetic microbeads have great potential not only in environmental fields but also in biomedical fields. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrogels with Appropriate/Tunable Properties for Biomedical Applications)
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20 pages, 1202 KiB  
Review
Unraveling the New Perspectives on Antimicrobial Hydrogels: State-of-the-Art and Translational Applications
by Miguel A. Ortega, Diego De Leon-Oliva, Diego Liviu Boaru, Oscar Fraile-Martinez, Cielo García-Montero, Raul Diaz, Santiago Coca, Silvestra Barrena-Blázquez, Julia Bujan, Natalio García-Honduvilla, Miguel A. Saez, Melchor Álvarez-Mon and Jose V. Saz
Gels 2023, 9(8), 617; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9080617 - 29 Jul 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1414
Abstract
The growing impact of infections and the rapid emergence of antibiotic resistance represent a public health concern worldwide. The exponential development in the field of biomaterials and its multiple applications can offer a solution to the problems that derive from these situations. In [...] Read more.
The growing impact of infections and the rapid emergence of antibiotic resistance represent a public health concern worldwide. The exponential development in the field of biomaterials and its multiple applications can offer a solution to the problems that derive from these situations. In this sense, antimicrobial hydrogels represent a promising opportunity with multiple translational expectations in the medical management of infectious diseases due to their unique physicochemical and biological properties as well as for drug delivery in specific areas. Hydrogels are three-dimensional cross-linked networks of hydrophilic polymers that can absorb and retain large amounts of water or biological fluids. Moreover, antimicrobial hydrogels (AMH) present good biocompatibility, low toxicity, availability, viscoelasticity, biodegradability, and antimicrobial properties. In the present review, we collect and discuss the most promising strategies in the development of AMH, which are divided into hydrogels with inherent antimicrobial activity and antimicrobial agent-loaded hydrogels based on their composition. Then, we present an overview of the main translational applications: wound healing, tissue engineering and regeneration, drug delivery systems, contact lenses, 3D printing, biosensing, and water purification. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antibacterial Gels)
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15 pages, 903 KiB  
Review
Injectable Poloxamer Hydrogels for Local Cancer Therapy
by Ana Camila Marques, Paulo Cardoso Costa, Sérgia Velho and Maria Helena Amaral
Gels 2023, 9(7), 593; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9070593 - 24 Jul 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2296
Abstract
The widespread push to invest in local cancer therapies comes from the need to overcome the limitations of systemic treatment options. In contrast to intravenous administration, local treatments using intratumoral or peritumoral injections are independent of tumor vasculature and allow high concentrations of [...] Read more.
The widespread push to invest in local cancer therapies comes from the need to overcome the limitations of systemic treatment options. In contrast to intravenous administration, local treatments using intratumoral or peritumoral injections are independent of tumor vasculature and allow high concentrations of therapeutic agents to reach the tumor site with minimal systemic toxicity. Injectable biodegradable hydrogels offer a clear advantage over other delivery systems because the former requires no surgical procedures and promotes drug retention at the tumor site. More precisely, in situ gelling systems based on poloxamers have garnered considerable attention due to their thermoresponsive behavior, biocompatibility, ease of preparation, and possible incorporation of different anticancer agents. Therefore, this review focuses on the use of injectable thermoresponsive hydrogels based on poloxamers and their physicochemical and biological characterization. It also includes a summary of these hydrogel applications in local cancer therapies using chemotherapy, phototherapy, immunotherapy, and gene therapy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrogel-Based Novel Biomaterials: Achievements and Prospects)
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17 pages, 5165 KiB  
Article
Functional Hydrogels for Agricultural Application
by Romana Kratochvílová, Milan Kráčalík, Marcela Smilková, Petr Sedláček, Miloslav Pekař, Elke Bradt, Jiří Smilek, Petra Závodská and Martina Klučáková
Gels 2023, 9(7), 590; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9070590 - 22 Jul 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1293
Abstract
Ten different hydrogels were prepared and analyzed from the point of view of their use in soil. FT-IR spectra, morphology, swelling ability, and rheological properties were determined for their characterization and appraisal of their stability. The aim was to characterize prepared materials containing [...] Read more.
Ten different hydrogels were prepared and analyzed from the point of view of their use in soil. FT-IR spectra, morphology, swelling ability, and rheological properties were determined for their characterization and appraisal of their stability. The aim was to characterize prepared materials containing different amounts of NPK as mineral fertilizer, lignohumate as a source of organic carbon, and its combination. This study of stability was focused on utility properties in their application in soil—repeated drying/re-swelling cycles and possible freezing in winter. Lignohumate supported the water absorbency, while the addition of NPK caused a negative effect. Pore sizes decreased with NPK addition. Lignohumate incorporated into polymers resulted in a much miscellaneous structure, rich in different pores and voids of with a wide range of sizes. NPK fertilizer supported the elastic character of prepared materials, while the addition of lignohumate shifted their rheological behavior to more liquid. Both dynamic moduli decreased in time. The most stable samples appeared to contain only one fertilizer constituent (NPK or lignohumate). Repeated re-swelling resulted in an increase in elastic character, which was connected with the gradual release of fertilizers. A similar effect was observed with samples that were frozen and defrosted, except samples containing a higher amount of NPK without lignohumate. A positive effect of acrylamide on superabsorbent properties was not confirmed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Smart and Tough Hydrogels)
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28 pages, 2738 KiB  
Review
High-Performing Conductive Hydrogels for Wearable Applications
by Hossein Omidian and Sumana Dey Chowdhury
Gels 2023, 9(7), 549; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9070549 - 06 Jul 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2040
Abstract
Conductive hydrogels have gained significant attention for their extensive applications in healthcare monitoring, wearable sensors, electronic devices, soft robotics, energy storage, and human–machine interfaces. To address the limitations of conductive hydrogels, researchers are focused on enhancing properties such as sensitivity, mechanical strength, electrical [...] Read more.
Conductive hydrogels have gained significant attention for their extensive applications in healthcare monitoring, wearable sensors, electronic devices, soft robotics, energy storage, and human–machine interfaces. To address the limitations of conductive hydrogels, researchers are focused on enhancing properties such as sensitivity, mechanical strength, electrical performance at low temperatures, stability, antibacterial properties, and conductivity. Composite materials, including nanoparticles, nanowires, polymers, and ionic liquids, are incorporated to improve the conductivity and mechanical strength. Biocompatibility and biosafety are emphasized for safe integration with biological tissues. Conductive hydrogels exhibit unique properties such as stretchability, self-healing, wet adhesion, anti-freezing, transparency, UV-shielding, and adjustable mechanical properties, making them suitable for specific applications. Researchers aim to develop multifunctional hydrogels with antibacterial characteristics, self-healing capabilities, transparency, UV-shielding, gas-sensing, and strain-sensitivity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gels for Flexible Electronics and Energy Devices)
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30 pages, 9896 KiB  
Review
Aloe vera-Based Hydrogels for Wound Healing: Properties and Therapeutic Effects
by Mariana Chelu, Adina Magdalena Musuc, Monica Popa and Jose Calderon Moreno
Gels 2023, 9(7), 539; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9070539 - 03 Jul 2023
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 9307
Abstract
Aloe vera-based hydrogels have emerged as promising platforms for the delivery of therapeutic agents in wound dressings due to their biocompatibility and unique wound-healing properties. The present study provides a comprehensive overview of recent advances in the application of Aloe vera-based [...] Read more.
Aloe vera-based hydrogels have emerged as promising platforms for the delivery of therapeutic agents in wound dressings due to their biocompatibility and unique wound-healing properties. The present study provides a comprehensive overview of recent advances in the application of Aloe vera-based hydrogels for wound healing. The synthesis methods, structural characteristics, and properties of Aloe vera-based hydrogels are discussed. Mechanisms of therapeutic agents released from Aloe vera-based hydrogels, including diffusion, swelling, and degradation, are also analyzed. In addition, the therapeutic effects of Aloe vera-based hydrogels on wound healing, as well as the reduction of inflammation, antimicrobial activity, and tissue regeneration, are highlighted. The incorporation of various therapeutic agents, such as antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory ones, into Aloe vera-based hydrogels is reviewed in detail. Furthermore, challenges and future prospects of Aloe vera-based hydrogels for wound dressing applications are considered. This review provides valuable information on the current status of Aloe vera-based hydrogels for the delivery of therapeutic agents in wound dressings and highlights their potential to improve wound healing outcomes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrogel for Sustained Delivery of Therapeutic Agents)
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13 pages, 3756 KiB  
Article
Dual pH- and Thermo-Sensitive Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-allylamine) Nanogels for Curcumin Delivery: Swelling–Deswelling Behavior and Phase Transition Mechanism
by Madhappan Santhamoorthy and Seong-Cheol Kim
Gels 2023, 9(7), 536; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9070536 - 01 Jul 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1581
Abstract
Curcumin (Cur) is a beneficial ingredient with numerous bioactivities. However, due to its low solubility and poor bioavailability, its therapeutic application is limited. In this work, we prepared poly-N-isopropylacrylamide p(NIPAm) and polyallylamine p(Am)-based nanogel (p(NIPAm-co-Am)) NG for a dual pH- and temperature-sensitive copolymer [...] Read more.
Curcumin (Cur) is a beneficial ingredient with numerous bioactivities. However, due to its low solubility and poor bioavailability, its therapeutic application is limited. In this work, we prepared poly-N-isopropylacrylamide p(NIPAm) and polyallylamine p(Am)-based nanogel (p(NIPAm-co-Am)) NG for a dual pH- and temperature-sensitive copolymer system for drug delivery application. In this copolymer system, the p(NIPAm) segment was incorporated to introduce thermoresponsive behavior and the p(Am) segment was incorporated to introduce drug binding sites (amine groups) in the resulting (p(NIPAm-co-Am)) NG system. Various instrumental characterizations including 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR) spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) analysis, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), zeta potential, and particle size analysis were performed to confirm the copolymer synthesis. Curcumin (Cur), an anticancer bioactive substance, was employed to assess the in vitro drug loading and release performance of the resulting copolymer nanogels system at varied pH levels (pH 7.2, 6.5, and 4.0) and temperatures (25 °C, 37 °C, and 42 °C). The cytocompatibility of the p(NIPAm-co-Am) NG sample was also tested on MDA-MB-231 cells at various sample concentrations. All the study results indicate that the p(NIPAm-co-Am) NG produced might be effective for drug loading and release under pH and temperature dual-stimuli conditions. As a result, the p(NIPAm-co-Am) NG system has the potential to be beneficial in the use of drug delivery applications in cancer therapy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Gels Engineering for Drug Delivery)
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21 pages, 3893 KiB  
Review
Essential Guide to Hydrogel Rheology in Extrusion 3D Printing: How to Measure It and Why It Matters?
by Helena Herrada-Manchón, Manuel Alejandro Fernández and Enrique Aguilar
Gels 2023, 9(7), 517; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9070517 - 26 Jun 2023
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5138
Abstract
Rheology plays a crucial role in the field of extrusion-based three-dimensional (3D) printing, particularly in the context of hydrogels. Hydrogels have gained popularity in 3D printing due to their potential applications in tissue engineering, regenerative medicine, and drug delivery. The rheological properties of [...] Read more.
Rheology plays a crucial role in the field of extrusion-based three-dimensional (3D) printing, particularly in the context of hydrogels. Hydrogels have gained popularity in 3D printing due to their potential applications in tissue engineering, regenerative medicine, and drug delivery. The rheological properties of the printing material have a significant impact on its behaviour throughout the 3D printing process, including its extrudability, shape retention, and response to stress and strain. Thus, understanding the rheological characteristics of hydrogels, such as shear thinning behaviour, thixotropy, viscoelasticity, and gelling mechanisms, is essential for optimising the printing process and achieving desired product quality and accuracy. This review discusses the theoretical foundations of rheology, explores different types of fluid and their properties, and discusses the essential rheological tests necessary for characterising hydrogels. The paper emphasises the importance of terminology, concepts, and the correct interpretation of results in evaluating hydrogel formulations. By presenting a detailed understanding of rheology in the context of 3D printing, this review paper aims to assist researchers, engineers, and practitioners in the field of hydrogel-based 3D printing in optimizing their printing processes and achieving desired product outcomes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrogels for 3D Printing)
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14 pages, 1404 KiB  
Article
Dielectric Study on Supramolecular Gels by Fiber Structure Formation from Low-Molecular-Weight Gelator/Water Mixtures
by Kenta Shimizu, Fumiya Abe, Yasuhiro Kishi, Rio Kita, Naoki Shinyashiki and Shin Yagihara
Gels 2023, 9(5), 408; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9050408 - 12 May 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1311
Abstract
There are various types of gel materials used in a wide range of fields, and their gelation mechanisms are extremely diverse. Furthermore, in the case of hydrogels, there exist some difficulties in understanding complicated molecular mechanisms especially with water molecules interacting through hydrogen [...] Read more.
There are various types of gel materials used in a wide range of fields, and their gelation mechanisms are extremely diverse. Furthermore, in the case of hydrogels, there exist some difficulties in understanding complicated molecular mechanisms especially with water molecules interacting through hydrogen bonding as solvents. In the present work, the molecular mechanism of the structural formation of fibrous super-molecular gel by the low molecular weight gelator, N-oleyl lactobionamide/water mixture was elucidated using the broadband dielectric spectroscopy (BDS) method. The dynamic behaviors observed for the solute and water molecules indicated hierarchical structure formation processes in various time scales. The relaxation curves obtained at various temperatures in the cooling and heating processes showed relaxation processes respectively reflecting the dynamic behaviors of water molecules in the 10 GHz frequency region, solute molecules interacting with water in MHz region, and ion-reflecting structures of the sample and electrode in kHz region. These relaxation processes, characterized by the relaxation parameters, showed remarkable changes around the sol–gel transition temperature, 37.8 °C, determined by the falling ball method and over the temperature range, around 53 °C. The latter change suggested a structure formation of rod micelles appearing as precursors before cross-linking into the three-dimensional network of the supramolecular gels. These results clearly demonstrate how effective relaxation parameter analysis is for understanding the gelation mechanism in detail. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Shaping and Structuring of Polymer Gels)
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16 pages, 2717 KiB  
Article
Effects of Steam Sterilization on the Properties of Stimuli-Responsive Polymer-Based Hydrogels
by Inês Ferreira, Ana Camila Marques, Paulo Cardoso Costa and Maria Helena Amaral
Gels 2023, 9(5), 385; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9050385 - 06 May 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2075
Abstract
Hydrogels based on stimuli-responsive polymers can change their characteristics in response to small variations in environmental conditions, such as temperature, pH, and ionic strength, among others. In the case of some routes of administration, such as ophthalmic and parenteral, the formulations must meet [...] Read more.
Hydrogels based on stimuli-responsive polymers can change their characteristics in response to small variations in environmental conditions, such as temperature, pH, and ionic strength, among others. In the case of some routes of administration, such as ophthalmic and parenteral, the formulations must meet specific requirements, namely sterility. Therefore, it is essential to study the effect of the sterilization method on the integrity of smart gel systems. Thus, this work aimed to study the effect of steam sterilization (121 °C, 15 min) on the properties of hydrogels based on the following stimuli-responsive polymers: Carbopol® 940, Pluronic® F-127, and sodium alginate. The properties of the prepared hydrogels—pH, texture, rheological behavior, and sol-gel phase transition—were evaluated to compare and identify the differences between sterilized and non-sterilized hydrogels. The influence of steam sterilization on physicochemical stability was also investigated by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry. The results of this study showed that the Carbopol® 940 hydrogel was the one that suffered fewer changes in the studied properties after sterilization. By contrast, sterilization was found to cause slight changes in the Pluronic® F-127 hydrogel regarding gelation temperature/time, as well as a considerable decrease in the viscosity of the sodium alginate hydrogel. There were no considerable differences in the chemical and physical characteristics of the hydrogels after steam sterilization. It is possible to conclude that steam sterilization is suitable for Carbopol® 940 hydrogels. Contrarily, this technique does not seem adequate for the sterilization of alginate or Pluronic® F-127 hydrogels, as it could considerably alter their properties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Functional Gel)
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20 pages, 6671 KiB  
Article
Chitosan-Silica Hybrid Biomaterials for Bone Tissue Engineering: A Comparative Study of Xerogels and Aerogels
by Antonio Pérez-Moreno, Manuel Piñero, Rafael Fernández-Montesinos, Gonzalo Pinaglia-Tobaruela, María V. Reyes-Peces, María del Mar Mesa-Díaz, José Ignacio Vilches-Pérez, Luis Esquivias, Nicolás de la Rosa-Fox and Mercedes Salido
Gels 2023, 9(5), 383; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9050383 - 05 May 2023
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1450
Abstract
Chitosan (CS) is a natural biopolymer that shows promise as a biomaterial for bone-tissue regeneration. However, because of their limited ability to induce cell differentiation and high degradation rate, among other drawbacks associated with its use, the creation of CS-based biomaterials remains a [...] Read more.
Chitosan (CS) is a natural biopolymer that shows promise as a biomaterial for bone-tissue regeneration. However, because of their limited ability to induce cell differentiation and high degradation rate, among other drawbacks associated with its use, the creation of CS-based biomaterials remains a problem in bone tissue engineering research. Here we aimed to reduce these disadvantages while retaining the benefits of potential CS biomaterial by combining it with silica to provide sufficient additional structural support for bone regeneration. In this work, CS-silica xerogel and aerogel hybrids with 8 wt.% CS content, designated SCS8X and SCS8A, respectively, were prepared by sol-gel method, either by direct solvent evaporation at the atmospheric pressure or by supercritical drying in CO2, respectively. As reported in previous studies, it was confirmed that both types of mesoporous materials exhibited large surface areas (821 m2g−1–858 m2g−1) and outstanding bioactivity, as well as osteoconductive properties. In addition to silica and chitosan, the inclusion of 10 wt.% of tricalcium phosphate (TCP), designated SCS8T10X, was also considered, which stimulates a fast bioactive response of the xerogel surface. The results here obtained also demonstrate that xerogels induced earlier cell differentiation than the aerogels with identical composition. In conclusion, our study shows that the sol-gel synthesis of CS-silica xerogels and aerogels enhances not only their bioactive response, but also osteoconduction and cell differentiation properties. Therefore, these new biomaterials should provide adequate secretion of the osteoid for a fast bone regeneration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aerogel Hybrids and Nanocomposites)
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48 pages, 9421 KiB  
Review
Diversity of Bioinspired Hydrogels: From Structure to Applications
by Alexandra Lupu, Luiza Madalina Gradinaru, Vasile Robert Gradinaru and Maria Bercea
Gels 2023, 9(5), 376; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9050376 - 02 May 2023
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2238
Abstract
Hydrogels are three-dimensional networks with a variety of structures and functions that have a remarkable ability to absorb huge amounts of water or biological fluids. They can incorporate active compounds and release them in a controlled manner. Hydrogels can also be designed to [...] Read more.
Hydrogels are three-dimensional networks with a variety of structures and functions that have a remarkable ability to absorb huge amounts of water or biological fluids. They can incorporate active compounds and release them in a controlled manner. Hydrogels can also be designed to be sensitive to external stimuli: temperature, pH, ionic strength, electrical or magnetic stimuli, specific molecules, etc. Alternative methods for the development of various hydrogels have been outlined in the literature over time. Some hydrogels are toxic and therefore are avoided when obtaining biomaterials, pharmaceuticals, or therapeutic products. Nature is a permanent source of inspiration for new structures and new functionalities of more and more competitive materials. Natural compounds present a series of physico-chemical and biological characteristics suitable for biomaterials, such as biocompatibility, antimicrobial properties, biodegradability, and nontoxicity. Thus, they can generate microenvironments comparable to the intracellular or extracellular matrices in the human body. This paper discusses the main advantages of the presence of biomolecules (polysaccharides, proteins, and polypeptides) in hydrogels. Structural aspects induced by natural compounds and their specific properties are emphasized. The most suitable applications will be highlighted, including drug delivery, self-healing materials for regenerative medicine, cell culture, wound dressings, 3D bioprinting, foods, etc. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structured Gels: Mechanics, Responsivity and Applications)
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19 pages, 4402 KiB  
Article
New Methacrylated Biopolymer-Based Hydrogels as Localized Drug Delivery Systems in Skin Cancer Therapy
by Andreea Luca, Isabella Nacu, Sabina Tanasache, Cătălina Anişoara Peptu, Maria Butnaru and Liliana Verestiuc
Gels 2023, 9(5), 371; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9050371 - 01 May 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1900
Abstract
The aim of the present work was to obtain drug-loaded hydrogels based on combinations of dextran, chitosan/gelatin/xanthan, and poly (acrylamide) as a sustained and controlled release vehicle of Doxorubicin, a drug used in skin cancer therapy that is associated with severe side effects. [...] Read more.
The aim of the present work was to obtain drug-loaded hydrogels based on combinations of dextran, chitosan/gelatin/xanthan, and poly (acrylamide) as a sustained and controlled release vehicle of Doxorubicin, a drug used in skin cancer therapy that is associated with severe side effects. Hydrogels for use as 3D hydrophilic networks with good manipulation characteristics were produced using methacrylated biopolymer derivatives and the methacrylate group’s polymerization with synthetic monomers in the presence of a photo-initiator, under UV light stimulation (365 nm). Transformed infrared spectroscopy analysis (FT-IR) confirmed the hydrogels’ network structure (natural–synthetic composition and photocrosslinking), while scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis confirmed the microporous morphology. The hydrogels are swellable in simulated biological fluids and the material’s morphology regulates the swelling properties: the maximum swelling degree was obtained for dextran–chitosan-based hydrogels because of their higher porosity and pore distribution. The hydrogels are bioadhesive on a biological simulating membrane, and values for the force of detachment and work of adhesion are recommended for applications on skin tissue. The Doxorubicin was loaded into the hydrogels and the drug was released by diffusion for all the resulting hydrogels, with small contributions from the hydrogel networks’ relaxation. Doxorubicin-loaded hydrogels are efficient on keratinocytes tumor cells, the sustained released drug interrupting the cells’ division and inducing cell apoptosis; we recommend the obtained materials for the topical treatment of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Hydrogels: From Rational Design to Applications)
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14 pages, 5050 KiB  
Article
Tissue Adhesive, Biocompatible, Antioxidant, and Antibacterial Hydrogels Based on Tannic Acid and Fungal-Derived Carboxymethyl Chitosan for Wound-Dressing Applications
by Kummara Madhusudana Rao, Uluvangada Thammaiah Uthappa, Hyeon Jin Kim and Sung Soo Han
Gels 2023, 9(5), 354; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9050354 - 22 Apr 2023
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1757
Abstract
This study aimed to develop hydrogels for tissue adhesion that are biocompatible, antioxidant, and antibacterial. We achieved this by using tannic acid (TA) and fungal-derived carboxymethyl chitosan (FCMCS) incorporated in a polyacrylamide (PAM) network using free-radical polymerization. The concentration of TA greatly influenced [...] Read more.
This study aimed to develop hydrogels for tissue adhesion that are biocompatible, antioxidant, and antibacterial. We achieved this by using tannic acid (TA) and fungal-derived carboxymethyl chitosan (FCMCS) incorporated in a polyacrylamide (PAM) network using free-radical polymerization. The concentration of TA greatly influenced the physicochemical and biological properties of the hydrogels. Scanning electron microscopy showed that the nanoporous structure of the FCMCS hydrogel was retained with the addition of TA, resulting in a nanoporous surface structure. Equilibrium-swelling experiments revealed that increasing the concentration of TA significantly improved water uptake capacity. Antioxidant radical-scavenging assays and porcine skin adhesion tests confirmed the excellent adhesive properties of the hydrogels, with adhesion strengths of up to 39.8 ± 1.2 kPa for 1.0TA-FCMCS due to the presence of abundant phenolic groups on TA. The hydrogels were also found to be biocompatible with skin fibroblast cells. Furthermore, the presence of TA significantly enhanced the antibacterial properties of the hydrogels against both Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative (Escherichia coli) bacteria. Therefore, the developed drug-free antibacterial and tissue-adhesive hydrogels can potentially be used as wound dressings for infected wounds. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Chitosan Hydrogels)
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15 pages, 6503 KiB  
Article
Dehydrofluorination Process of Poly(vinylidene difluoride) PVdF-Based Gel Polymer Electrolytes and Its Effect on Lithium-Sulfur Batteries
by Julen Castillo, Adrián Robles-Fernandez, Rosalía Cid, José Antonio González-Marcos, Michel Armand, Daniel Carriazo, Heng Zhang and Alexander Santiago
Gels 2023, 9(4), 336; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9040336 - 14 Apr 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2329
Abstract
Gel polymer electrolytes (GPEs) are emerging as suitable candidates for high-performing lithium-sulfur batteries (LSBs) due to their excellent performance and improved safety. Within them, poly(vinylidene difluoride) (PVdF) and its derivatives have been widely used as polymer hosts due to their ideal mechanical and [...] Read more.
Gel polymer electrolytes (GPEs) are emerging as suitable candidates for high-performing lithium-sulfur batteries (LSBs) due to their excellent performance and improved safety. Within them, poly(vinylidene difluoride) (PVdF) and its derivatives have been widely used as polymer hosts due to their ideal mechanical and electrochemical properties. However, their poor stability with lithium metal (Li0) anode has been identified as their main drawback. Here, the stability of two PVdF-based GPEs with Li0 and their application in LSBs is studied. PVdF-based GPEs undergo a dehydrofluorination process upon contact with the Li0. This process results in the formation of a LiF-rich solid electrolyte interphase that provides high stability during galvanostatic cycling. Nevertheless, despite their outstanding initial discharge, both GPEs show an unsuitable battery performance characterized by a capacity drop, ascribed to the loss of the lithium polysulfides and their interaction with the dehydrofluorinated polymer host. Through the introduction of an intriguing lithium salt (lithium nitrate) in the electrolyte, a significant improvement is achieved delivering higher capacity retention. Apart from providing a detailed study of the hitherto poorly characterized interaction process between PVdF-based GPEs and the Li0, this study demonstrates the need for an anode protection process to use this type of electrolytes in LSBs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gel-Based Electrolytes for Solid-State Electrochemical Devices)
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11 pages, 2620 KiB  
Article
Tumor Microenvironment-Responsive 6-Mercaptopurine-Releasing Injectable Hydrogel for Colon Cancer Treatment
by Sungjun Kim, Wonjeong Lee, Heewon Park and Kyobum Kim
Gels 2023, 9(4), 319; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9040319 - 10 Apr 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1751
Abstract
Colon cancer is a significant health concern. The development of effective drug delivery systems is critical for improving treatment outcomes. In this study, we developed a drug delivery system for colon cancer treatment by embedding 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP), an anticancer drug, in a thiolated [...] Read more.
Colon cancer is a significant health concern. The development of effective drug delivery systems is critical for improving treatment outcomes. In this study, we developed a drug delivery system for colon cancer treatment by embedding 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP), an anticancer drug, in a thiolated gelatin/polyethylene glycol diacrylate hydrogel (6MP-GPGel). The 6MP-GPGel continuously released 6-MP, the anticancer drug. The release rate of 6-MP was further accelerated in an acidic or glutathione environment that mimicked a tumor microenvironment. In addition, when pure 6-MP was used for treatment, cancer cells proliferated again from day 5, whereas a continuous supply of 6-MP from the 6MP-GPGel continuously suppressed the survival rate of cancer cells. In conclusion, our study demonstrates that embedding 6-MP in a hydrogel formulation can improve the efficacy of colon cancer treatment and may serve as a promising minimally invasive and localized drug delivery system for future development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrogelated Matrices: Structural, Functional and Applicative Aspects)
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14 pages, 3353 KiB  
Article
Collagen Membrane as Water-Based Gel Electrolyte for Electrochromic Devices
by Carmela Tania Prontera, Nunzia Gallo, Roberto Giannuzzi, Marco Pugliese, Vitantonio Primiceri, Fabrizio Mariano, Antonio Maggiore, Giuseppe Gigli, Alessandro Sannino, Luca Salvatore and Vincenzo Maiorano
Gels 2023, 9(4), 310; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9040310 - 06 Apr 2023
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1384
Abstract
Bio-based polymers are attracting great interest due to their potential for several applications in place of conventional polymers. In the field of electrochemical devices, the electrolyte is a fundamental element that determines their performance, and polymers represent good candidates for developing solid-state and [...] Read more.
Bio-based polymers are attracting great interest due to their potential for several applications in place of conventional polymers. In the field of electrochemical devices, the electrolyte is a fundamental element that determines their performance, and polymers represent good candidates for developing solid-state and gel-based electrolytes toward the development of full-solid-state devices. In this context, the fabrication and characterization of uncrosslinked and physically cross-linked collagen membranes are reported to test their potential as a polymeric matrix for the development of a gel electrolyte. The evaluation of the membrane’s stability in water and aqueous electrolyte and the mechanical characterization demonstrated that cross-linked samples showed a good compromise in terms of water absorption capability and resistance. The optical characteristics and the ionic conductivity of the cross-linked membrane, after overnight dipping in sulfuric acid solution, demonstrated the potential of the reported membrane as an electrolyte for electrochromic devices. As proof of concept, an electrochromic device was fabricated by sandwiching the membrane (after sulfuric acid dipping) between a glass/ITO/PEDOT:PSS substrate and a glass/ITO/SnO2 substrate. The results in terms of optical modulation and kinetic performance of such a device demonstrated that the reported cross-linked collagen membrane could represent a valid candidate as a water-based gel and bio-based electrolyte for full-solid-state electrochromic devices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gel-Based Electrolytes for Solid-State Electrochemical Devices)
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17 pages, 3734 KiB  
Article
Injectable Chitosan-Based Hydrogels for Trans-Cinnamaldehyde Delivery in the Treatment of Diabetic Foot Ulcer Infections
by Henry Chijcheapaza-Flores, Nicolas Tabary, Feng Chai, Mickaël Maton, Jean-Noel Staelens, Frédéric Cazaux, Christel Neut, Bernard Martel, Nicolas Blanchemain and Maria José Garcia-Fernandez
Gels 2023, 9(3), 262; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9030262 - 22 Mar 2023
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2527
Abstract
Diabetic foot ulcers (DFU) are among the most common complications in diabetic patients and affect 6.8% of people worldwide. Challenges in the management of this disease are decreased blood diffusion, sclerotic tissues, infection, and antibiotic resistance. Hydrogels are now being used as a [...] Read more.
Diabetic foot ulcers (DFU) are among the most common complications in diabetic patients and affect 6.8% of people worldwide. Challenges in the management of this disease are decreased blood diffusion, sclerotic tissues, infection, and antibiotic resistance. Hydrogels are now being used as a new treatment option since they can be used for drug delivery and to improve wound healing. This project aims to combine the properties of hydrogels based on chitosan (CHT) and the polymer of β cyclodextrin (PCD) for local delivery of cinnamaldehyde (CN) in diabetic foot ulcers. This work consisted of the development and characterisation of the hydrogel, the evaluation of the CN release kinetics and cell viability (on a MC3T3 pre-osteoblast cell line), and the evaluation of the antimicrobial and antibiofilm activity (S. aureus and P. aeruginosa). The results demonstrated the successful development of a cytocompatible (ISO 10993-5) injectable hydrogel with antibacterial (99.99% bacterial reduction) and antibiofilm activity. Furthermore, a partial active molecule release and an increase in hydrogel elasticity were observed in the presence of CN. This leads us to hypothesise that a reaction between CHT and CN (a Schiff base) can occur and that CN could act as a physical crosslinker, thus improving the viscoelastic properties of the hydrogel and limiting CN release. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Chitosan Hydrogels)
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10 pages, 2077 KiB  
Communication
Bionic Aerogel with a Lotus Leaf-like Structure for Efficient Oil-Water Separation and Electromagnetic Interference Shielding
by Fengqi Liu, Yonggang Jiang, Junzong Feng, Liangjun Li and Jian Feng
Gels 2023, 9(3), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9030214 - 10 Mar 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1500
Abstract
Increasing pollution from industrial wastewater containing oils or organic solvents poses a serious threat to both the environment and human health. Compared to complex chemical modifications, bionic aerogels with intrinsic hydrophobic properties exhibit better durability and are considered as ideal adsorbents for oil-water [...] Read more.
Increasing pollution from industrial wastewater containing oils or organic solvents poses a serious threat to both the environment and human health. Compared to complex chemical modifications, bionic aerogels with intrinsic hydrophobic properties exhibit better durability and are considered as ideal adsorbents for oil-water separation. However, the construction of biomimetic three-dimensional (3D) structures by simple methods is still a great challenge. Here, we prepared biomimetic superhydrophobic aerogels with lotus leaf-like structures by growing carbon coatings on Al2O3 nanorod-carbon nanotube hybrid backbones. Thanks to its multicomponent synergy and unique structure, this fascinating aerogel can be directly obtained through a simple conventional sol-gel and carbonization process. The aerogels exhibit excellent oil-water separation (22 g·g−1), recyclability (over 10 cycles) and dye adsorption properties (186.2 mg·g−1 for methylene blue). In addition, benefiting from the conductive porous structure, the aerogels also demonstrate outstanding electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding capabilities (~40 dB in X-band). This work presents fresh insights for the preparation of multifunctional biomimetic aerogels. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Inspired Polymeric Gels and Their Applications)
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33 pages, 7268 KiB  
Article
Bioengineered Water-Responsive Carboxymethyl Cellulose/Poly(vinyl alcohol) Hydrogel Hybrids for Wound Dressing and Skin Tissue Engineering Applications
by Nádia Sueli Vieira Capanema, Alexandra Ancelmo Piscitelli Mansur, Isadora Cota Carvalho, Sandhra Maria Carvalho and Herman Sander Mansur
Gels 2023, 9(2), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9020166 - 18 Feb 2023
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2769
Abstract
The burden of chronic wounds is growing due to the increasing incidence of trauma, aging, and diabetes, resulting in therapeutic problems and increased medical costs. Thus, this study reports the synthesis and comprehensive characterization of water-responsive hybrid hydrogels based on carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) [...] Read more.
The burden of chronic wounds is growing due to the increasing incidence of trauma, aging, and diabetes, resulting in therapeutic problems and increased medical costs. Thus, this study reports the synthesis and comprehensive characterization of water-responsive hybrid hydrogels based on carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) using citric acid (CA) as the chemical crosslinking agent, with tunable physicochemical properties suitable to be applied as a wound dressing for soft tissue engineering applications. They were produced through an eco-friendly process under mild conditions. The hydrogels were designed and produced with flexible swelling degree properties through the selection of CMC molecular mass (Mw = 250 and 700 kDa) and degree of functionalization (DS = 0.81), degree of hydrolysis of PVA (DH > 99%, Mw = 84–150 kDa) associated with synthesis parameters, CMC/PVA ratio and extension of chemical crosslinking (CA/CMC:PVA ratio), for building engineered hybrid networks. The results demonstrated that highly absorbent hydrogels were produced with swelling degrees ranging from 100% to 5000%, and gel fraction from 40% to 80%, which significantly depended on the concentration of CA crosslinker and the presence of PVA as the CMC-based network modifier. The characterizations indicated that the crosslinking mechanism was mostly associated with the chemical reaction of CA carboxylic groups with hydroxyl groups of CMC and PVA polymers forming ester bonds, rendering a hybrid polymeric network. These hybrid hydrogels also presented hydrophilicity, permeability, and structural features dependent on the degree of crosslinking and composition. The hydrogels were cytocompatible with in vitro cell viability responses of over 90% towards model cell lines. Hence, it is envisioned that this research provides a simple strategy for producing biocompatible hydrogels with tailored properties as wound dressings for assisting chronic wound healing and skin tissue engineering applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Cellulose-Based Hydrogels (2nd Edition))
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27 pages, 4370 KiB  
Review
Polymer Gels: Classification and Recent Developments in Biomedical Applications
by Mariana Chelu and Adina Magdalena Musuc
Gels 2023, 9(2), 161; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9020161 - 17 Feb 2023
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 7207
Abstract
Polymer gels are a valuable class of polymeric materials that have recently attracted significant interest due to the exceptional properties such as versatility, soft-structure, flexibility and stimuli-responsive, biodegradability, and biocompatibility. Based on their properties, polymer gels can be used in a wide range [...] Read more.
Polymer gels are a valuable class of polymeric materials that have recently attracted significant interest due to the exceptional properties such as versatility, soft-structure, flexibility and stimuli-responsive, biodegradability, and biocompatibility. Based on their properties, polymer gels can be used in a wide range of applications: food industry, agriculture, biomedical, and biosensors. The utilization of polymer gels in different medical and industrial applications requires a better understanding of the formation process, the factors which affect the gel’s stability, and the structure-rheological properties relationship. The present review aims to give an overview of the polymer gels, the classification of polymer gels’ materials to highlight their important features, and the recent development in biomedical applications. Several perspectives on future advancement of polymer hydrogel are offered. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Gel Analysis and Characterization)
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24 pages, 3834 KiB  
Review
Polysaccharide-Based Multifunctional Hydrogel Bio-Adhesives for Wound Healing: A Review
by Jiahao Yang and Shige Wang
Gels 2023, 9(2), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9020138 - 06 Feb 2023
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 5218
Abstract
Wound healing is a long-term and complex biological process that involves multiple hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling stages. In order to realize comprehensive and systematic wound management, appropriate wound treatment bio-adhesives are urgently needed. Hydrogel bio-adhesives have excellent properties and show unique and [...] Read more.
Wound healing is a long-term and complex biological process that involves multiple hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling stages. In order to realize comprehensive and systematic wound management, appropriate wound treatment bio-adhesives are urgently needed. Hydrogel bio-adhesives have excellent properties and show unique and remarkable advantages in the field of wound management. This review begins with a detailed description of the design criteria and functionalities of ideal hydrogel bio-adhesives for wound healing. Then, recent advances in polysaccharide-based multifunctional hydrogel bio-adhesives, which involve chitosan, hyaluronic acid, alginate, cellulose, dextran, konjac glucomannan, chondroitin sulfate, and other polysaccharides, are comprehensively discussed. Finally, the current challenges and future research directions of polysaccharide-based hydrogel bio-adhesives for wound healing are proposed to stimulate further exploration by researchers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Preparation, Properties and Applications of Functional Hydrogels)
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16 pages, 7576 KiB  
Article
Characterization of a Bioink Combining Extracellular Matrix-like Hydrogel with Osteosarcoma Cells: Preliminary Results
by Giada Loi, Gaia Stucchi, Franca Scocozza, Laura Cansolino, Francesca Cadamuro, Elena Delgrosso, Federica Riva, Cinzia Ferrari, Laura Russo and Michele Conti
Gels 2023, 9(2), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9020129 - 03 Feb 2023
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2304
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting allows the production of artificial 3D cellular microenvironments thanks to the controlled spatial deposition of bioinks. Proper bioink characterization is required to achieve the essential characteristics of printability and biocompatibility for 3D bioprinting. In this work, a protocol to standardize [...] Read more.
Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting allows the production of artificial 3D cellular microenvironments thanks to the controlled spatial deposition of bioinks. Proper bioink characterization is required to achieve the essential characteristics of printability and biocompatibility for 3D bioprinting. In this work, a protocol to standardize the experimental characterization of a new bioink is proposed. A functionalized hydrogel based on gelatin and chitosan was used. The protocol was divided into three steps: pre-printing, 3D bioprinting, and post-printing. For the pre-printing step, the hydrogel formulation and its repeatability were evaluated. For the 3D-bioprinting step, the hydrogel-printability performance was assessed through qualitative and quantitative tests. Finally, for the post-printing step, the hydrogel biocompatibility was investigated using UMR-106 cells. The hydrogel was suitable for printing grids with good resolution from 4 h after the cross-linker addition. To guarantee a constant printing pressure, it was necessary to set the extruder to 37 °C. Furthermore, the hydrogel was shown to be a valid biomaterial for the UMR-106 cells’ growth. However, fragmentation of the constructs appeared after 14 days, probably due to the negative osteosarcoma-cell interference. The protocol that we describe here denotes a strong approach to bioink characterization to improve standardization for future biomaterial screening and development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Biopolymer-Based Hydrogels)
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30 pages, 4361 KiB  
Review
Nanocomposite Bioprinting for Tissue Engineering Applications
by Konstantinos Loukelis, Zina A. Helal, Antonios G. Mikos and Maria Chatzinikolaidou
Gels 2023, 9(2), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9020103 - 24 Jan 2023
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3956
Abstract
Bioprinting aims to provide new avenues for regenerating damaged human tissues through the controlled printing of live cells and biocompatible materials that can function therapeutically. Polymeric hydrogels are commonly investigated ink materials for 3D and 4D bioprinting applications, as they can contain intrinsic [...] Read more.
Bioprinting aims to provide new avenues for regenerating damaged human tissues through the controlled printing of live cells and biocompatible materials that can function therapeutically. Polymeric hydrogels are commonly investigated ink materials for 3D and 4D bioprinting applications, as they can contain intrinsic properties relative to those of the native tissue extracellular matrix and can be printed to produce scaffolds of hierarchical organization. The incorporation of nanoscale material additives, such as nanoparticles, to the bulk of inks, has allowed for significant tunability of the mechanical, biological, structural, and physicochemical material properties during and after printing. The modulatory and biological effects of nanoparticles as bioink additives can derive from their shape, size, surface chemistry, concentration, and/or material source, making many configurations of nanoparticle additives of high interest to be thoroughly investigated for the improved design of bioactive tissue engineering constructs. This paper aims to review the incorporation of nanoparticles, as well as other nanoscale additive materials, to printable bioinks for tissue engineering applications, specifically bone, cartilage, dental, and cardiovascular tissues. An overview of the various bioinks and their classifications will be discussed with emphasis on cellular and mechanical material interactions, as well the various bioink formulation methodologies for 3D and 4D bioprinting techniques. The current advances and limitations within the field will be highlighted. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioprinting Hydrogels)
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20 pages, 1785 KiB  
Review
Application of Hydrogels as Three-Dimensional Bioprinting Ink for Tissue Engineering
by Mengbo Xie, Jingjing Su, Shengxi Zhou, Jingan Li and Kun Zhang
Gels 2023, 9(2), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9020088 - 19 Jan 2023
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3238
Abstract
The use of three-dimensional bioprinting technology combined with the principle of tissue engineering is important for the construction of tissue or organ regeneration microenvironments. As a three-dimensional bioprinting ink, hydrogels need to be highly printable and provide a stiff and cell-friendly microenvironment. At [...] Read more.
The use of three-dimensional bioprinting technology combined with the principle of tissue engineering is important for the construction of tissue or organ regeneration microenvironments. As a three-dimensional bioprinting ink, hydrogels need to be highly printable and provide a stiff and cell-friendly microenvironment. At present, hydrogels are used as bioprinting inks in tissue engineering. However, there is still a lack of summary of the latest 3D printing technology and the properties of hydrogel materials. In this paper, the materials commonly used as hydrogel bioinks; the advanced technologies including inkjet bioprinting, extrusion bioprinting, laser-assisted bioprinting, stereolithography bioprinting, suspension bioprinting, and digital 3D bioprinting technologies; printing characterization including printability and fidelity; biological properties, and the application fields of bioprinting hydrogels in bone tissue engineering, skin tissue engineering, cardiovascular tissue engineering are reviewed, and the current problems and future directions are prospected. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrogels in Action: Self-Assembly, Responsivity and Sensing)
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23 pages, 3450 KiB  
Article
Design of Injectable Bioartificial Hydrogels by Green Chemistry for Mini-Invasive Applications in the Biomedical or Aesthetic Medicine Fields
by Rossella Laurano, Monica Boffito, Claudio Cassino, Francesco Liberti, Gianluca Ciardelli and Valeria Chiono
Gels 2023, 9(1), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9010059 - 11 Jan 2023
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1973
Abstract
Bioartificial hydrogels are hydrophilic systems extensively studied for regenerative medicine due to the synergic combination of features of synthetic and natural polymers. Injectability is another crucial property for hydrogel mini-invasive administration. This work aimed at engineering injectable bioartificial in situ cross-linkable hydrogels by [...] Read more.
Bioartificial hydrogels are hydrophilic systems extensively studied for regenerative medicine due to the synergic combination of features of synthetic and natural polymers. Injectability is another crucial property for hydrogel mini-invasive administration. This work aimed at engineering injectable bioartificial in situ cross-linkable hydrogels by implementing green and eco-friendly approaches. Specifically, the versatile poly(ether urethane) (PEU) chemistry was exploited for the development of an amphiphilic PEU, while hyaluronic acid was selected as natural component. Both polymers were functionalized to expose thiol and catechol groups through green water-based carbodiimide-mediated grafting reactions. Functionalization was optimized to maximize grafting yield while preserving group functionality. Then, polymer miscibility was studied at the macro-, micro-, and nano-scale, suggesting the formation of hydrogen bonds among polymeric chains. All hydrogels could be injected through G21 and G18 needles in a wide temperature range (4–25 °C) and underwent sol-to-gel transition at 37 °C. The addition of an oxidizing agent to polymer solutions did not improve the gelation kinetics, while it negatively affected hydrogel stability in an aqueous environment, suggesting the occurrence of oxidation-triggered polymer degradation. In the future, the bioartificial hydrogels developed herein could find application in the biomedical and aesthetic medicine fields as injectable formulations for therapeutic agent delivery. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gel Role in the World of the Cosmetic Research)
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15 pages, 7618 KiB  
Article
Assessing Polysaccharides/Aloe Vera–Based Hydrogels for Tumor Spheroid Formation
by Petruța Preda, Ana-Maria Enciu, Cristiana Tanase, Maria Dudau, Lucian Albulescu, Monica-Elisabeta Maxim, Raluca Nicoleta Darie-Niță, Oana Brincoveanu and Marioara Avram
Gels 2023, 9(1), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9010051 - 07 Jan 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2164
Abstract
In vitro tumor spheroids have proven to be useful 3D tumor culture models for drug testing, and determining the molecular mechanism of tumor progression and cellular interactions. Therefore, there is a continuous search for their industrial scalability and routine preparation. Considering that hydrogels [...] Read more.
In vitro tumor spheroids have proven to be useful 3D tumor culture models for drug testing, and determining the molecular mechanism of tumor progression and cellular interactions. Therefore, there is a continuous search for their industrial scalability and routine preparation. Considering that hydrogels are promising systems that can favor the formation of tumor spheroids, our study aimed to investigate and develop less expensive and easy-to-use amorphous and crosslinked hydrogels, based on natural compounds such as sodium alginate (NaAlg), aloe vera (AV) gel powder, and chitosan (CS) for tumor spheroid formation. The ability of the developed hydrogels to be a potential spheroid-forming system was evaluated using MDA-MB-231 and U87MG cancer cells. Spheroid abilities were influenced by pH, viscosity, and crosslinking of the hydrogel. Addition of either AV or chitosan to sodium alginate increased the viscosity at pH 5, resulting in amorphous hydrogels with a strong gel texture, as shown by rheologic analysis. Only the chitosan-based gel allowed formation of spheroids at pH 5. Among the variants of AV-based amorphous hydrogels tested, only hydrogels at pH 12 and with low viscosity promoted the formation of spheroids. The crosslinked NaAlg/AV, NaAlg/AV/glucose, and NaAlg/CS hydrogel variants favored more efficient spheroid formation. Additional studies would be needed to use AV in other physical forms and other formulations of hydrogels, as the current study is an initiation, in evaluating the potential use of AV gel in tumor spheroid formation systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Hydrogels for Cancer Therapy)
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13 pages, 2071 KiB  
Review
Bioprinted Hydrogels for Fibrosis and Wound Healing: Treatment and Modeling
by Jason L. Guo and Michael T. Longaker
Gels 2023, 9(1), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9010019 - 27 Dec 2022
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3172
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) printing has been used to fabricate biomaterial scaffolds with finely controlled physical architecture and user-defined patterning of biological ligands. Excitingly, recent advances in bioprinting have enabled the development of highly biomimetic hydrogels for the treatment of fibrosis and the promotion of [...] Read more.
Three-dimensional (3D) printing has been used to fabricate biomaterial scaffolds with finely controlled physical architecture and user-defined patterning of biological ligands. Excitingly, recent advances in bioprinting have enabled the development of highly biomimetic hydrogels for the treatment of fibrosis and the promotion of wound healing. Bioprinted hydrogels offer more accurate spatial recapitulation of the biochemical and biophysical cues that inhibit fibrosis and promote tissue regeneration, augmenting the therapeutic potential of hydrogel-based therapies. Accordingly, bioprinted hydrogels have been used for the treatment of fibrosis in a diverse array of tissues and organs, including the skin, heart, and endometrium. Furthermore, bioprinted hydrogels have been utilized for the healing of both acute and chronic wounds, which present unique biological microenvironments. In addition to these therapeutic applications, hydrogel bioprinting has been used to generate in vitro models of fibrosis in a variety of soft tissues such as the skin, heart, and liver, enabling high-throughput drug screening and tissue analysis at relatively low cost. As biological research begins to uncover the spatial biological features that underlie fibrosis and wound healing, bioprinting offers a powerful toolkit to recapitulate spatially defined pro-regenerative and anti-fibrotic cues for an array of translational applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioprinting Hydrogels)
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22 pages, 6903 KiB  
Review
Advances in Hemostatic Hydrogels That Can Adhere to Wet Surfaces
by Wenli Han and Shige Wang
Gels 2023, 9(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9010002 - 22 Dec 2022
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4317
Abstract
Currently, uncontrolled bleeding remains a serious problem in emergency, surgical and battlefield environments. Despite the specific properties of available hemostatic agents, sealants, and adhesives, effective hemostasis under wet and dynamic conditions remains a challenge. In recent years, polymeric hydrogels with excellent hemostatic properties [...] Read more.
Currently, uncontrolled bleeding remains a serious problem in emergency, surgical and battlefield environments. Despite the specific properties of available hemostatic agents, sealants, and adhesives, effective hemostasis under wet and dynamic conditions remains a challenge. In recent years, polymeric hydrogels with excellent hemostatic properties have received much attention because of their adjustable mechanical properties, high porosity, and biocompatibility. In this review, to investigate the role of hydrogels in hemostasis, the mechanisms of hydrogel hemostasis and adhesion are firstly elucidated, the adhesion design strategies of hemostatic hydrogels in wet environments are briefly introduced, and then, based on a comprehensive literature review, the studies and in vivo applications of wet-adhesive hemostatic hydrogels in different environments are summarized, and the improvement directions of such hydrogels in future studies are proposed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Properties and Applications of Biomaterials Related to Gels)
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19 pages, 6045 KiB  
Article
Unidirectional Nanopore Dehydration Induces an Anisotropic Polyvinyl Alcohol Hydrogel Membrane with Enhanced Mechanical Properties
by Feng-Ya Jing and Yu-Qing Zhang
Gels 2022, 8(12), 803; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8120803 - 08 Dec 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1720
Abstract
As a biocompatible, degradable polymer material, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) can have a wide range of applications in the biomedical field. PVA aqueous solutions at room temperature can be cast into very thin films with poor mechanical strength via water evaporation. Here, we describe [...] Read more.
As a biocompatible, degradable polymer material, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) can have a wide range of applications in the biomedical field. PVA aqueous solutions at room temperature can be cast into very thin films with poor mechanical strength via water evaporation. Here, we describe a novel dehydration method, unidirectional nanopore dehydration (UND). The UND method was used to directly dehydrate a PVA aqueous solution to form a water-stable, anisotropic, and mechanically robust PVA hydrogel membrane (PVAHM), whose tensile strength, elongation at break, and swelling ratio reached values of up to ~2.95 MPa, ~350%, and ~350%, respectively. The film itself exhibited an oriented arrangement of porous network structures with an average pore size of ~1.0 μm. At 70 °C, the PVAHMs formed were even more mechanically robust, with a tensile strength and elongation at break of 10.5 MPa and 891%, almost 3.5 times and 2 times greater than the PVAHM prepared at 25 °C, respectively. The processing temperature affects the velocity at which the water molecules flow unidirectionally through the nanopores, and could, thus, alter the overall transformation of the PVA chains into a physically crosslinked 3D network. Therefore, the temperature setting during UND can control the mechanical properties of the hydrogel membrane to meet the requirements of various biomaterial applications. These results show that the UND can induce the ordered rearrangement of PVA molecular chains, forming a PVAHM with superior mechanical properties and exhibiting a greater number of stronger hydrogen bonds. Therefore, the novel dehydration mode not only induces the formation of a mechanically robust and anisotropic PVA hydrogel membrane with a porous network structure and an average pore size of ~1.0 μm, but also greatly enhances the mechanical properties by increasing the temperature. It may be applied for the processing of water-soluble polymers, including proteins, as novel functional materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gel Formation and Processing Technologies for Material Applications)
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20 pages, 5675 KiB  
Article
Hemostatic Cryogels Based on Oxidized Pullulan/Dopamine with Potential Use as Wound Dressings
by Raluca Ioana Baron, Ioana A. Duceac, Simona Morariu, Andra-Cristina Bostănaru-Iliescu and Sergiu Coseri
Gels 2022, 8(11), 726; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8110726 - 09 Nov 2022
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2646
Abstract
The impetus for research into hydrogels based on selectively oxidized polysaccharides has been stimulated by the diversity of potential biomedical applications. Towards the development of a hemostatic wound dressing in this study, we creatively combined the (hemi)acetal and Schiff base bonds to prepare [...] Read more.
The impetus for research into hydrogels based on selectively oxidized polysaccharides has been stimulated by the diversity of potential biomedical applications. Towards the development of a hemostatic wound dressing in this study, we creatively combined the (hemi)acetal and Schiff base bonds to prepare a series of multifunctional cryogels based on dialdehyde pullulan and dopamine. The designed structures were verified by NMR and FTIR spectroscopy. Network parameters and dynamic sorption studies were correlated with environmental scanning microscopy results, thus confirming the successful integration of the two components and the opportunities for finely tuning the structure–properties balance. The viscoelastic parameters (storage and loss moduli, complex and apparent viscosities, zero shear viscosity, yield stress) and the structural recovery capacity after applying a large deformation were determined and discussed. The mechanical stability and hemostatic activity suggest that the optimal combination of selectively oxidized pullulan and dopamine can be a promising toolkit for wound management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Hydrogels: From Rational Design to Applications)
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13 pages, 5690 KiB  
Article
Portable Quartz Crystal Resonator Sensor for Characterising the Gelation Kinetics and Viscoelastic Properties of Hydrogels
by Andrés Miranda-Martínez, Hongji Yan, Valentin Silveira, José Javier Serrano-Olmedo and Thomas Crouzier
Gels 2022, 8(11), 718; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8110718 - 07 Nov 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2074
Abstract
Hydrogel biomaterials have found use in various biomedical applications partly due to their biocompatibility and tuneable viscoelastic properties. The ideal rheological properties of hydrogels depend highly on the application and should be considered early in the design process. Rheometry is the most common [...] Read more.
Hydrogel biomaterials have found use in various biomedical applications partly due to their biocompatibility and tuneable viscoelastic properties. The ideal rheological properties of hydrogels depend highly on the application and should be considered early in the design process. Rheometry is the most common method to study the viscoelastic properties of hydrogels. However, rheometers occupy much space and are costly instruments. On the other hand, quartz crystal resonators (QCRs) are devices that can be used as low-cost, small, and accurate sensors to measure the viscoelastic properties of fluids. For this reason, we explore the capabilities of a low-cost and compact QCR sensor to sense and characterise the gelation process of hydrogels while using a low sample amount and by sensing two different crosslink reactions: covalent bonds and divalent ions. The gelation of covalently crosslinked mucin hydrogels and physically crosslinked alginate hydrogels could be monitored using the sensor, clearly distinguishing the effect of several parameters affecting the viscoelastic properties of hydrogels, including crosslinking chemistry, polymer concentrations, and crosslinker concentrations. QCR sensors offer an economical and portable alternative method to characterise changes in a hydrogel material’s viscous properties to contribute to this type of material design, thus providing a novel approach. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomimetic Hydrogels)
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17 pages, 1550 KiB  
Article
Magnetically Activated Piezoelectric 3D Platform Based on Poly(Vinylidene) Fluoride Microspheres for Osteogenic Differentiation of Mesenchymal Stem Cells
by Maria Guillot-Ferriols, María Inmaculada García-Briega, Laia Tolosa, Carlos M. Costa, Senentxu Lanceros-Méndez, José Luis Gómez Ribelles and Gloria Gallego Ferrer
Gels 2022, 8(10), 680; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8100680 - 20 Oct 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2246
Abstract
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) osteogenic commitment before injection enhances bone regeneration therapy results. Piezoelectric stimulation may be an effective cue to promote MSCs pre-differentiation, and poly(vinylidene) fluoride (PVDF) cell culture supports, when combined with CoFe2O4 (CFO), offer a wireless in [...] Read more.
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) osteogenic commitment before injection enhances bone regeneration therapy results. Piezoelectric stimulation may be an effective cue to promote MSCs pre-differentiation, and poly(vinylidene) fluoride (PVDF) cell culture supports, when combined with CoFe2O4 (CFO), offer a wireless in vitro stimulation strategy. Under an external magnetic field, CFO shift and magnetostriction deform the polymer matrix varying the polymer surface charge due to the piezoelectric effect. To test the effect of piezoelectric stimulation on MSCs, our approach is based on a gelatin hydrogel with embedded MSCs and PVDF-CFO electroactive microspheres. Microspheres were produced by electrospray technique, favouring CFO incorporation, crystallisation in β-phase (85%) and a crystallinity degree of around 55%. The absence of cytotoxicity of the 3D construct was confirmed 24 h after cell encapsulation. Cells were viable, evenly distributed in the hydrogel matrix and surrounded by microspheres, allowing local stimulation. Hydrogels were stimulated using a magnetic bioreactor, and no significant changes were observed in MSCs proliferation in the short or long term. Nevertheless, piezoelectric stimulation upregulated RUNX2 expression after 7 days, indicating the activation of the osteogenic differentiation pathway. These results open the door for optimising a stimulation protocol allowing the application of the magnetically activated 3D electroactive cell culture support for MSCs pre-differentiation before transplantation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Injectable Gels: Applications in Drug Delivery and Tissue Engineering)
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11 pages, 1931 KiB  
Article
Thermoresponsive Cationic Polymers: PFAS Binding Performance under Variable pH, Temperature and Comonomer Composition
by E. Molly Frazar, Anicah Smith, Thomas Dziubla and J. Zach Hilt
Gels 2022, 8(10), 668; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8100668 - 18 Oct 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2213
Abstract
The versatility and unique qualities of thermoresponsive polymeric systems have led to the application of these materials in a multitude of fields. One such field that can significantly benefit from the use of innovative, smart materials is environmental remediation. Of particular significance, multifunctional [...] Read more.
The versatility and unique qualities of thermoresponsive polymeric systems have led to the application of these materials in a multitude of fields. One such field that can significantly benefit from the use of innovative, smart materials is environmental remediation. Of particular significance, multifunctional poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm) systems based on PNIPAAm copolymerized with various cationic comonomers have the opportunity to target and attract negatively charged pollutants such as perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). The thermoresponsive cationic PNIPAAm systems developed in this work were functionalized with cationic monomers N-[3-(dimethylamino)propyl]acrylamide (DMAPA) and (3-acrylamidopropyl)trimethylammonium chloride (DMAPAQ). The polymers were examined for swelling capacity behavior and PFOA binding potential when exposed to aqueous environments with varying pH and temperature. Comonomer loading percentages had the most significant effect on polymer swelling behavior and temperature responsiveness as compared to aqueous pH. PFOA removal efficiency was greatly improved with the addition of DMAPA and DMAPAQ monomers. Aqueous pH and buffer selection were important factors when examining binding potential of the polymers, as buffered aqueous environments altered polymer PFOA removal quite drastically. The role of temperature on binding potential was not as expected and had no discernible effect on the ability of DMAPAQ polymers to remove PFOA. Overall, the cationic systems show interesting swelling behavior and significant PFOA removal results that can be explored further for potential environmental remediation applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functionalized Gels for Environmental Applications)
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17 pages, 6682 KiB  
Article
A Multifractal Vision of 5-Fluorouracil Release from Chitosan-Based Matrix
by Maria-Alexandra Paun, Vladimir-Alexandru Paun and Viorel-Puiu Paun
Gels 2022, 8(10), 661; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8100661 - 16 Oct 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1415
Abstract
A suite of four drug deliverance formulations grounded on 5-fluorouracil enclosed in a chitosan-founded intercellular substance was produced by 3,7-dimethyl-2,6-octadienal with in situ hydrogelation. The formulations have been examined from a morphological and structural point of view by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy [...] Read more.
A suite of four drug deliverance formulations grounded on 5-fluorouracil enclosed in a chitosan-founded intercellular substance was produced by 3,7-dimethyl-2,6-octadienal with in situ hydrogelation. The formulations have been examined from a morphological and structural point of view by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and microscopy with polarized light, respectively. The polarized optical microscopy (POM) pictures of the three representative formulations obtained were investigated by fractal analysis. The fractal dimension and lacunarity of each of them were thus calculated. In this paper, a novel theoretical method for mathematically describing medicament deliverance dynamics in the context of the polymeric medicament constitution limit has been advanced. Assuming that the polymeric drug motion unfolds only on the so-called non-differentiable curves (considered mathematically multifractal curves), it looks like in a one-dimensional hydrodynamic movement within a multifractal formalism, the drug-release physics models are provided by isochronous kinetics, but at a scale of resolution necessarily non-differentiable. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gels: Synthesis, Characterization and Applications in High Performance Chemistry)
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30 pages, 10868 KiB  
Review
Polymer Gels Used in Oil–Gas Drilling and Production Engineering
by Jinliang Han, Jinsheng Sun, Kaihe Lv, Jingbin Yang and Yuhong Li
Gels 2022, 8(10), 637; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8100637 - 07 Oct 2022
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5545
Abstract
Polymer gels are widely used in oil–gas drilling and production engineering for the purposes of conformance control, water shutoff, fracturing, lost circulation control, etc. Here, the progress in research on three kinds of polymer gels, including the in situ crosslinked polymer gel, the [...] Read more.
Polymer gels are widely used in oil–gas drilling and production engineering for the purposes of conformance control, water shutoff, fracturing, lost circulation control, etc. Here, the progress in research on three kinds of polymer gels, including the in situ crosslinked polymer gel, the pre-crosslinked polymer gel and the physically crosslinked polymer gel, are systematically reviewed in terms of the gel compositions, crosslinking principles and properties. Moreover, the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of polymer gels are also comparatively discussed. The types, characteristics and action mechanisms of the polymer gels used in oil-gas drilling and production engineering are systematically analyzed. Depending on the crosslinking mechanism, in situ crosslinked polymer gels can be divided into free-radical-based monomer crosslinked gels, ionic-bond-based metal cross-linked gels and covalent-bond-based organic crosslinked gels. Surface crosslinked polymer gels are divided into two types based on their size and gel particle preparation method, including pre-crosslinked gel particles and polymer gel microspheres. Physically crosslinked polymer gels are mainly divided into hydrogen-bonded gels, hydrophobic association gels and electrostatic interaction gels depending on the application conditions of the oil–gas drilling and production engineering processes. In the field of oil–gas drilling engineering, the polymer gels are mainly used as drilling fluids, plugging agents and lost circulation materials, and polymer gels are an important material that are utilized for profile control, water shutoff, chemical flooding and fracturing. Finally, the research potential of polymer gels in oil–gas drilling and production engineering is proposed. The temperature resistance, salinity resistance, gelation strength and environmental friendliness of polymer gels should be further improved in order to meet the future technical requirements of oil–gas drilling and production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gels for Oil Drilling and Enhanced Recovery)
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Article
Frequency-Dependent Ultrasonic Stimulation of Poly(N-Isopropylacrylamide) Microgels in Water
by Atieh Razavi, Matthias Rutsch, Sonja Wismath, Mario Kupnik, Regine von Klitzing and Amin Rahimzadeh
Gels 2022, 8(10), 628; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8100628 - 01 Oct 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1661
Abstract
As a novel stimulus, we use high-frequency ultrasonic waves to provide the required energy for breaking hydrogen bonds between Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) and water molecules while the solution temperature is maintained below the volume phase transition temperature (VPTT = 32 °C). Ultrasonic waves propagate [...] Read more.
As a novel stimulus, we use high-frequency ultrasonic waves to provide the required energy for breaking hydrogen bonds between Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) and water molecules while the solution temperature is maintained below the volume phase transition temperature (VPTT = 32 °C). Ultrasonic waves propagate through the solution and their energy will be absorbed due to the liquid viscosity. The absorbed energy partially leads to the generation of a streaming flow and the rest will be spent to break the hydrogen bonds. Therefore, the microgels collapse and become insoluble in water and agglomerate, resulting in solution turbidity. We use turbidity to quantify the ultrasound energy absorption and show that the acousto-response of PNIPAM microgels is a temporal phenomenon that depends on the duration of the actuation. Increasing the solution concentration leads to a faster turbidity evolution. Furthermore, an increase in ultrasound frequency leads to an increase in the breakage of more hydrogen bonds within a certain time and thus faster turbidity evolution. This is due to the increase in ultrasound energy absorption by liquids at higher frequencies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermoresponsive Microgels)
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