Editorial

7 pages, 3967 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Special Issue on Security and Privacy in Blockchains and the IoT Volume II

by Christoph Stach and Clémentine Gritti

Future Internet 2023, 15(8), 272; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi15080272 - 16 Aug 2023

Viewed by 933

In this day and age, data are indispensable commodities and have become an integral part of our daily lives [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Blockchains and the IoT II)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

25 pages, 2898 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Blockchain Self-Sovereign Identity for Open Banking Secured by the Customer’s Banking Cards

by Khaled A. M. Ahmed, Sabry F. Saraya, John F. Wanis and Amr M. T. Ali-Eldin

Future Internet 2023, 15(6), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi15060208 - 08 Jun 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1768

Abstract

Open finance is evolving and extending open banking. This creates a large context that implies a financial and identity data exchange paradigm, which faces challenges to balance customer experience, security, and the self-control over personal identity information. We propose Self-Sovereign Banking Identity (SSBI), [...] Read more.

Open finance is evolving and extending open banking. This creates a large context that implies a financial and identity data exchange paradigm, which faces challenges to balance customer experience, security, and the self-control over personal identity information. We propose Self-Sovereign Banking Identity (SSBI), a Blockchain-based self-sovereign identity (SSI) to secure private data sharing by utilizing trusted customer’s banking cards as a key storage and identity transaction-signing enclave. The design and implementation of the SSI framework is based on the Veramo SDK and Ethereum to overcome the limitation of signing curve availability on the current banking Java Cards needed for Hyperledger Indy. SSBI uses the elliptic curve SECP256K1 for transaction signing, which exists for several payment cards in the market. SSBI enables automated financial services and trust in the service provider communication. This work analyzes the flow and framework components, and evaluates the usability, integration, and performance in terms of throughput, latency, security, and complexity. Furthermore, the proposed approach is compared with related solutions. The presented prototype implementation is based on a test Ethereum network and signing transactions on the banking card. The preliminary results show that SSBI provides an effective solution for integrating the customer’s banking cards to secure open banking identity exchange. Furthermore, it allows the integration of several scenarios to support trusted open banking. The Blockchain layer settings need to be scaled and improved before real-world implementation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Blockchains and the IoT II)

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27 pages, 12723 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Attacks on IoT: Side-Channel Power Acquisition Framework for Intrusion Detection

by Dominic Lightbody, Duc-Minh Ngo, Andriy Temko, Colin C. Murphy and Emanuel Popovici

Future Internet 2023, 15(5), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi15050187 - 21 May 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2321

Abstract

This study proposes the wider use of non-intrusive side-channel power data in cybersecurity for intrusion detection. An in-depth analysis of side-channel IoT power behaviour is performed on two well-known IoT devices—a Raspberry Pi 3 model B and a DragonBoard 410c—operating under normal conditions [...] Read more.

This study proposes the wider use of non-intrusive side-channel power data in cybersecurity for intrusion detection. An in-depth analysis of side-channel IoT power behaviour is performed on two well-known IoT devices—a Raspberry Pi 3 model B and a DragonBoard 410c—operating under normal conditions and under attack. Attacks from the categories of reconnaissance, brute force and denial of service are applied, and the side-channel power data of the IoT testbeds are then studied in detail. These attacks are used together to further compromise the IoT testbeds in a “capture-the-flag scenario”, where the attacker aims to infiltrate the device and retrieve a secret file. Some clear similarities in the side-channel power signatures of these attacks can be seen across the two devices. Furthermore, using the knowledge gained from studying the features of these attacks individually and the signatures witnessed in the “capture the flag scenario”, we show that security teams can reverse engineer attacks applied to their system to achieve a much greater understanding of the events that occurred during a breach. While this study presents behaviour signatures analysed visually, the acquired power series datasets will be instrumental for future human-centred AI-assisted intrusion detection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Blockchains and the IoT II)

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24 pages, 3987 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Blockchain-Based Loyalty Management System

by André F. Santos, José Marinho and Jorge Bernardino

Future Internet 2023, 15(5), 161; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi15050161 - 27 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2684

Abstract

Loyalty platforms are designed to increase customer loyalty and thus increase consumers’ attraction to purchase. Although successful in increasing brand reach and sales, these platforms fail to meet their primary objective due to a lack of incentives and encouragement for customers to return. [...] Read more.

Loyalty platforms are designed to increase customer loyalty and thus increase consumers’ attraction to purchase. Although successful in increasing brand reach and sales, these platforms fail to meet their primary objective due to a lack of incentives and encouragement for customers to return. Along with the problem in originating sales, they bring excessive costs to brands due to the maintenance and infrastructure required to make the systems feasible. In that sense, recent blockchain technology can help to overcome some of these problems, providing capabilities such as smart contracts, which have the potential to reinvent the way loyalty systems work and solve current problems. Although blockchain is a relatively new technology, some brands are already investigating its usefulness and rebuilding their loyalty systems. However, these platforms are independent and linked directly to a brand. Thus, there is a need for a generic platform capable of creating and managing different loyalty programs, regardless of the size of the business. This paper explores the shortcomings of current loyalty programs identified through the literature review, and proposes a loyalty management system with blockchain integration that allows any retailer to create and manage their loyalty programs and have customers interact directly with multiple programs in a single application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Blockchains and the IoT II)

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21 pages, 2663 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Addressing ZSM Security Issues with Blockchain Technology

by Michael Xevgenis, Dimitrios G. Kogias, Panagiotis A. Karkazis and Helen C. Leligou

Future Internet 2023, 15(4), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi15040129 - 28 Mar 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1491

Abstract

Undoubtedly, we are witnessing a new era of computer networks that aspire to support modern demanding applications by providing the highest Quality of Experience (QoE) to the end user. Next Generations Networks (NGNs) ensure that characteristics such as ultra-low latency, high availability and [...] Read more.

Undoubtedly, we are witnessing a new era of computer networks that aspire to support modern demanding applications by providing the highest Quality of Experience (QoE) to the end user. Next Generations Networks (NGNs) ensure that characteristics such as ultra-low latency, high availability and wide service coverage can be met across the network regardless of the network infrastructure ownership. To accomplish that, beyond the necessary improvements in the radio propagation field, changes have been made in the core network functions which are now characterized as programmable, and software defined. Software Defined Networks (SDNs) and Network Function Virtualization (NFV) are the keystones of the NGNs flexibility. The high expectations of NGNs’ performance and the continuous changes in the network conditions lead to the development of new network management frameworks that add elasticity and dynamicity and minimize human intervention. ETSI (the European Standards Organization) presents the Zero-touch Service Management (ZSM) framework that uses hyped technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) to achieve full end-to-end automation of the network services’ management across one or many different domains. Focusing on multi-domain network service management, there are several security issues identified by the standardization team which mostly derive from the lack of trust among network providers. In the present research, we explore the suitability of blockchain technology adoption for facing these security issues. Blockchain technology inherently addresses security in trustless environments such as the infrastructures defined by the ZSM team. Our contribution is three-fold: (a) we define the architecture of a multi-domain network infrastructure that adopts the ZSM approach and integrates blockchain functionality, (b) we explore the adoption of different blockchain and distributed ledger technologies (DLT) approaches to address ZSM security needs and (c) we provide guidelines to prospective solution designers/implementers on the detailed requirements that this solution has to meet to maximize the offered value. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Blockchains and the IoT II)

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27 pages, 896 KiB

Open AccessArticle

PVPBC: Privacy and Verifiability Preserving E-Voting Based on Permissioned Blockchain

by Muntadher Sallal, Ruairí de Fréin and Ali Malik

Future Internet 2023, 15(4), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi15040121 - 25 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1679

Abstract

Privacy and verifiability are crucial security requirements in e-voting systems and combining them is considered to be a challenge given that they seem to be contradictory. On one hand, privacy means that cast votes cannot be traced to the corresponding voters. On the [...] Read more.

Privacy and verifiability are crucial security requirements in e-voting systems and combining them is considered to be a challenge given that they seem to be contradictory. On one hand, privacy means that cast votes cannot be traced to the corresponding voters. On the other hand, linkability of voters and their votes is a requirement of verifiability which has the consequence that a voter is able to check their vote in the election result. These two contradictory features can be addressed by adopting privacy-preserving cryptographic primitives, which at the same time as achieving privacy, achieve verifiability. Many end-to-end schemes that support verifiability and privacy have the need for some voter action. This makes ballot casting more complex for voters. We propose the PVPBC voting system, which is an e-voting system that preserves privacy and verifiability without affecting voter usability. The PVPBC voting system uses an effective and distributed method of authorization, which is based on revocable anonymity, by making use of a permissioned distributed ledger and smart contract. In addition, the underlying PVPBC voting system satisfies election verifiability using the Selene voting scheme. The Selene protocol is a verifiable e-voting protocol. It publishes votes in plaintext accompanied by tracking numbers. This enables voters to confirm that their votes have been captured correctly by the system. Numerical experiments support the claim that PVPBC scales well as a function of the number of voters and candidates. In particular, PVPBC’s authorization time increases linearly as a function of the population size. The average latency associated with accessing the system also increases linearly with the voter population size. The latency incurred when a valid authentication transaction is created and sent on the DLT network is 6.275 ms. Empirical results suggest that the cost in GBP for casting and storing an encrypted ballot alongside a tracker commitment is a linear function of the number of candidates, which is an attractive aspect of PVPBC. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Blockchains and the IoT II)

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49 pages, 4508 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Data Is the New Oil–Sort of: A View on Why This Comparison Is Misleading and Its Implications for Modern Data Administration

by Christoph Stach

Future Internet 2023, 15(2), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi15020071 - 12 Feb 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4198

Abstract

Currently, data are often referred to as the oil of the 21st century. This comparison is not only used to express that the resource data are just as important for the fourth industrial revolution as oil was for the technological revolution in the [...] Read more.

Currently, data are often referred to as the oil of the 21st century. This comparison is not only used to express that the resource data are just as important for the fourth industrial revolution as oil was for the technological revolution in the late 19th century. There are also further similarities between these two valuable resources in terms of their handling. Both must first be discovered and extracted from their sources. Then, the raw materials must be cleaned, preprocessed, and stored before they can finally be delivered to consumers. Despite these undeniable similarities, however, there are significant differences between oil and data in all of these processing steps, making data a resource that is considerably more challenging to handle. For instance, data sources, as well as the data themselves, are heterogeneous, which means there is no one-size-fits-all data acquisition solution. Furthermore, data can be distorted by the source or by third parties without being noticed, which affects both quality and usability. Unlike oil, there is also no uniform refinement process for data, as data preparation should be tailored to the subsequent consumers and their intended use cases. With regard to storage, it has to be taken into account that data are not consumed when they are processed or delivered to consumers, which means that the data volume that has to be managed is constantly growing. Finally, data may be subject to special constraints in terms of distribution, which may entail individual delivery plans depending on the customer and their intended purposes. Overall, it can be concluded that innovative approaches are needed for handling the resource data that address these inherent challenges. In this paper, we therefore study and discuss the relevant characteristics of data making them such a challenging resource to handle. In order to enable appropriate data provisioning, we introduce a holistic research concept from data source to data sink that respects the processing requirements of data producers as well as the quality requirements of data consumers and, moreover, ensures a trustworthy data administration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Blockchains and the IoT II)

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14 pages, 1597 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Blockchain, Quo Vadis? Recent Changes in Perspectives on the Application of Technology in Agribusiness

by Geneci da Silva Ribeiro Rocha, Diego Durante Mühl, Hermenegildo Almeida Chingamba, Letícia de Oliveira and Edson Talamini

Future Internet 2023, 15(1), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi15010038 - 16 Jan 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2153

Abstract

Information technologies such as blockchain are developing fast, overcoming bottlenecks, and quickly taking advantage of their application. The present study analyzes recent changes concerning the benefits, disadvantages, challenges, and opportunities of blockchain applications in agribusiness. Interviews were conducted with and a questionnaire was [...] Read more.

Information technologies such as blockchain are developing fast, overcoming bottlenecks, and quickly taking advantage of their application. The present study analyzes recent changes concerning the benefits, disadvantages, challenges, and opportunities of blockchain applications in agribusiness. Interviews were conducted with and a questionnaire was applied to professionals working in the development and application of blockchain technology in agribusiness, to compare their perception of the recent advances. The results showed that the importance of blockchain technology to improve governance and information flow along supply chains has increased, and this is the main perceived benefit. The main disadvantages were removing intermediaries and the high cost of implementing the technology. The absence of a widely accepted platform in blockchain operations is the leading and growing challenge, while patterns for blockchain technology seem to be being overcome. The integration of blockchain with new technologies, and the competitiveness provided by the technology, are seen as the main and growing opportunities. Despite the study limitations, we conclude that the benefits and opportunities associated with blockchain application in agribusiness outweigh the challenges and disadvantages in number and importance, and are becoming more relevant. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Blockchains and the IoT II)

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15 pages, 1388 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Abstracting Data in Distributed Ledger Systems for Higher Level Analytics and Visualizations

by Leny Vinceslas, Safak Dogan, Srikumar Sundareshwar and Ahmet M. Kondoz

Future Internet 2023, 15(1), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi15010033 - 11 Jan 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1637

Abstract

By design, distributed ledger technologies persist low-level data, which makes conducting complex business analysis of the recorded operations challenging. Existing blockchain visualization and analytics tools such as block explorers tend to rely on this low-level data and complex interfacing to provide an enriched [...] Read more.

By design, distributed ledger technologies persist low-level data, which makes conducting complex business analysis of the recorded operations challenging. Existing blockchain visualization and analytics tools such as block explorers tend to rely on this low-level data and complex interfacing to provide an enriched level of analytics. The ability to derive richer analytics could be improved through the availability of a higher level abstraction of the data. This article proposes an abstraction layer architecture that enables the design of high-level analytics of distributed ledger systems and the decentralized applications that run on top. Based on the analysis of existing initiatives and identification of the relevant user requirements, this work aims to establish key insights and specifications to improve the auditability and intuitiveness of distributed ledger systems by leveraging the development of future user interfaces. To illustrate the benefits offered by the proposed abstraction layer architecture, a regulated sector use case is explored. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Blockchains and the IoT II)

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18 pages, 872 KiB

Open AccessArticle

SAUSA: Securing Access, Usage, and Storage of 3D Point CloudData by a Blockchain-Based Authentication Network

by Ronghua Xu, Yu Chen, Genshe Chen and Erik Blasch

Future Internet 2022, 14(12), 354; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi14120354 - 28 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1850

Abstract

The rapid development of three-dimensional (3D) acquisition technology based on 3D sensors provides a large volume of data, which are often represented in the form of point clouds. Point cloud representation can preserve the original geometric information along with associated attributes in a [...] Read more.

The rapid development of three-dimensional (3D) acquisition technology based on 3D sensors provides a large volume of data, which are often represented in the form of point clouds. Point cloud representation can preserve the original geometric information along with associated attributes in a 3D space. Therefore, it has been widely adopted in many scene-understanding-related applications such as virtual reality (VR) and autonomous driving. However, the massive amount of point cloud data aggregated from distributed 3D sensors also poses challenges for secure data collection, management, storage, and sharing. Thanks to the characteristics of decentralization and security, Blockchain has great potential to improve point cloud services and enhance security and privacy preservation. Inspired by the rationales behind the software-defined network (SDN) technology, this paper envisions SAUSA, a Blockchain-based authentication network that is capable of recording, tracking, and auditing the access, usage, and storage of 3D point cloud datasets in their life-cycle in a decentralized manner. SAUSA adopts an SDN-inspired point cloud service architecture, which allows for efficient data processing and delivery to satisfy diverse quality-of-service (QoS) requirements. A Blockchain-based authentication framework is proposed to ensure security and privacy preservation in point cloud data acquisition, storage, and analytics. Leveraging smart contracts for digitizing access control policies and point cloud data on the Blockchain, data owners have full control of their 3D sensors and point clouds. In addition, anyone can verify the authenticity and integrity of point clouds in use without relying on a third party. Moreover, SAUSA integrates a decentralized storage platform to store encrypted point clouds while recording references of raw data on the distributed ledger. Such a hybrid on-chain and off-chain storage strategy not only improves robustness and availability, but also ensures privacy preservation for sensitive information in point cloud applications. A proof-of-concept prototype is implemented and tested on a physical network. The experimental evaluation validates the feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed SAUSA solution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Blockchains and the IoT II)

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18 pages, 1480 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Distributed Tamper-Proof Storage Methods for Public Key Infrastructures

by Fabian Honecker, Julian Dreyer and Ralf Tönjes

Future Internet 2022, 14(11), 336; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi14110336 - 18 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1962

Abstract

Modern Public Key Infrastructures (PKIs) allow users to create and maintain centrally stored cryptographic certificates. These infrastructures use a so-called certificate chain. At the root of the chain, a root Certification Authority (CA) is responsible for issuing the base certificate. Every verification and [...] Read more.

Modern Public Key Infrastructures (PKIs) allow users to create and maintain centrally stored cryptographic certificates. These infrastructures use a so-called certificate chain. At the root of the chain, a root Certification Authority (CA) is responsible for issuing the base certificate. Every verification and certification step within the chain is based upon the security of said root CA. Thus, its operation security is of great concern. Since the root certificates are stored locally on the root CA, any Denial of Service (DoS) attack may render the whole certificate chain, which is based on of the attacked root CA, inoperable. Therefore, this article evaluates different approaches to a decentralized data storage system that is based on the Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT). To show the real-world potential of the proposed approaches, we also evaluate the different technologies using a novel PKI mechanism called Near Field Communication Key Exchange (NFC-KE). The results indicate that modern distributed data storage solutions such as Interplanetary Filesystem (IPFS) and SIA can have significant performance and decentralization benefits in comparison to purely Blockchain-based technologies like Hyperledger Fabric. However, they lack any Smart Contract functionality, which requires a software developer to implement verification mechanisms in centralized software solutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Blockchains and the IoT II)

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16 pages, 654 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Users’ Perceptions of Key Blockchain Features in Games

by Iikka Paajala, Jesse Nyyssölä, Juho Mattila and Pasi Karppinen

Future Internet 2022, 14(11), 321; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi14110321 - 04 Nov 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2629

Abstract

The blockchain is an emerging technology that has the potential to revolutionize the gaming industry among a wide range of different business fields. So far, only a few studies have been conducted about blockchain gaming. This study introduces a mobile game utilizing blockchain [...] Read more.

The blockchain is an emerging technology that has the potential to revolutionize the gaming industry among a wide range of different business fields. So far, only a few studies have been conducted about blockchain gaming. This study introduces a mobile game utilizing blockchain asset tokens and smart contracts. It was developed for research purposes and used to demonstrate blockchain-based games using semi-structured interviews. This study follows the exploratory research paradigm, which aims to map research of little-known areas. This study focuses on how participants perceived blockchain attributes such as trust, transparency, and user-generated content and how this affected engagement and their willingness to play the game again. Based on our evaluation, generating blockchain assets positively impacted player retention. According to the results, providing genuine asset ownership through the blockchain contributes to environmental engagement and self-engagement, as well as player retention. Another positive blockchain feature discovered from the interview data is user-generated content implementation into games. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Blockchains and the IoT II)

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43 pages, 2917 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Protecting Sensitive Data in the Information Age: State of the Art and Future Prospects

by Christoph Stach, Clémentine Gritti, Julia Bräcker, Michael Behringer and Bernhard Mitschang

Future Internet 2022, 14(11), 302; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi14110302 - 22 Oct 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3535

Abstract

The present information age is characterized by an ever-increasing digitalization. Smart devices quantify our entire lives. These collected data provide the foundation for data-driven services called smart services. They are able to adapt to a given context and thus tailor their functionalities to [...] Read more.

The present information age is characterized by an ever-increasing digitalization. Smart devices quantify our entire lives. These collected data provide the foundation for data-driven services called smart services. They are able to adapt to a given context and thus tailor their functionalities to the user’s needs. It is therefore not surprising that their main resource, namely data, is nowadays a valuable commodity that can also be traded. However, this trend does not only have positive sides, as the gathered data reveal a lot of information about various data subjects. To prevent uncontrolled insights into private or confidential matters, data protection laws restrict the processing of sensitive data. One key factor in this regard is user-friendly privacy mechanisms. In this paper, we therefore assess current state-of-the-art privacy mechanisms. To this end, we initially identify forms of data processing applied by smart services. We then discuss privacy mechanisms suited for these use cases. Our findings reveal that current state-of-the-art privacy mechanisms provide good protection in principle, but there is no compelling one-size-fits-all privacy approach. This leads to further questions regarding the practicality of these mechanisms, which we present in the form of seven thought-provoking propositions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Blockchains and the IoT II)

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27 pages, 6047 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A VPN Performances Analysis of Constrained Hardware Open Source Infrastructure Deploy in IoT Environment

by Antonio Francesco Gentile, Davide Macrì, Floriano De Rango, Mauro Tropea and Emilio Greco

Future Internet 2022, 14(9), 264; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi14090264 - 13 Sep 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3620

Abstract

Virtual private network (VPN) represents an HW/SW infrastructure that implements private and confidential communication channels that usually travel through the Internet. VPN is currently one of the most reliable technologies to achieve this goal, also because being a consolidated technology, it is possible [...] Read more.

Virtual private network (VPN) represents an HW/SW infrastructure that implements private and confidential communication channels that usually travel through the Internet. VPN is currently one of the most reliable technologies to achieve this goal, also because being a consolidated technology, it is possible to apply appropriate patches to remedy any security holes. In this paper we analyze the performances of open source firmware OpenWrt 21.x compared with a server-side operating system (Debian 11 x64) and Mikrotik 7.x, also virtualized, and different types of clients (Windows 10/11, iOS 15, Android 11, OpenWrt 21.x, Debian 11 x64 and Mikrotik 7.x), observing the performance of the network according to the current implementation of the various protocols and algorithms of VPN tunnel examined on what are the most recent HW and SW for deployment in outdoor locations with poor network connectivity. Specifically, operating systems provide different performance metric values for various combinations of configuration variables. The first pursued goal is to find the algorithms to guarantee a data transmission/encryption ratio as efficiently as possible. The second goal is to research the algorithms capable of guaranteeing the widest spectrum of compatibility with the current infrastructures that support VPN technology, to obtain a connection system secure for geographically scattered IoT networks spread over difficult-to-manage areas such as suburban or rural environments. The third goal is to be able to use open firmware on constrained routers that provide compatibility with different VPN protocols. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Blockchains and the IoT II)

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23 pages, 2414 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multilayer Backbones for Internet of Battlefield Things

by Evangelia Fragkou, Dimitrios Papakostas, Theodoros Kasidakis and Dimitrios Katsaros

Future Internet 2022, 14(6), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi14060186 - 15 Jun 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2082

Abstract

The Internet of Battlefield Things is a newly born cyberphysical system and, even though it shares a lot with the Internet of Things and with ad hoc networking, substantial research is required to cope with its scale and peculiarities. This article examines a [...] Read more.

The Internet of Battlefield Things is a newly born cyberphysical system and, even though it shares a lot with the Internet of Things and with ad hoc networking, substantial research is required to cope with its scale and peculiarities. This article examines a fundamental problem pertaining to the routing of information, i.e., the calculation of a backbone network. We model an IoBT network as a network with multiple layers and employ the concept of domination for multilayer networks. This is a significant departure from earlier works, and in spite of the huge literature on the topic during the past twenty years, the problem in IoBT networks is different since these networks are multilayer networks, thus making inappropriate all the past, related literature because it deals with single layer (flat) networks. We establish the computational complexity of our problem, and design a distributed algorithm for computing connected dominating sets with small cardinality. We analyze the performance of the proposed algorithm on generated topologies, and compare it against two—the only existing—competitors. The proposed algorithm establishes itself as the clear winner in all experiments concerning the dominating set from a size-wise and an energy-wise perspective achieving a performance gain of about 15%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Blockchains and the IoT II)

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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

45 pages, 2869 KiB

Open AccessReview

Securing Wireless Sensor Networks Using Machine Learning and Blockchain: A Review

by Shereen Ismail, Diana W. Dawoud and Hassan Reza

Future Internet 2023, 15(6), 200; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi15060200 - 30 May 2023

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3540

Abstract

As an Internet of Things (IoT) technological key enabler, Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are prone to different kinds of cyberattacks. WSNs have unique characteristics, and have several limitations which complicate the design of effective attack prevention and detection techniques. This paper aims to [...] Read more.

As an Internet of Things (IoT) technological key enabler, Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are prone to different kinds of cyberattacks. WSNs have unique characteristics, and have several limitations which complicate the design of effective attack prevention and detection techniques. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the fundamental principles underlying cybersecurity in WSNs. In addition to current and envisioned solutions that have been studied in detail, this review primarily focuses on state-of-the-art Machine Learning (ML) and Blockchain (BC) security techniques by studying and analyzing 164 up-to-date publications highlighting security aspect in WSNs. Then, the paper discusses integrating BC and ML towards developing a lightweight security framework that consists of two lines of defence, i.e, cyberattack detection and cyberattack prevention in WSNs, emphasizing the relevant design insights and challenges. The paper concludes by presenting a proposed integrated BC and ML solution highlighting potential BC and ML algorithms underpinning a less computationally demanding solution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Blockchains and the IoT II)

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27 pages, 1792 KiB

Open AccessReview

Redactable Blockchain: Comprehensive Review, Mechanisms, Challenges, Open Issues and Future Research Directions

by Shams Mhmood Abd Ali, Mohd Najwadi Yusoff and Hasan Falah Hasan

Future Internet 2023, 15(1), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi15010035 - 12 Jan 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2868

Abstract

The continuous advancements of blockchain applications impose constant improvements on their technical features. Particularly immutability, a highly secure blockchain attribute forbidding unauthorized or illicit data editing or deletion, which functions as crucial blockchain security. Nonetheless, the security function is currently being challenged due [...] Read more.

The continuous advancements of blockchain applications impose constant improvements on their technical features. Particularly immutability, a highly secure blockchain attribute forbidding unauthorized or illicit data editing or deletion, which functions as crucial blockchain security. Nonetheless, the security function is currently being challenged due to improper data stored, such as child pornography, copyright violation, and lately the enaction of the “Right to be Forgotten (RtbF)” principle disseminated by the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), where it requires blockchain data to be redacted to suit current applications’ urgent demands, and even compliance with the regulation is a challenge and an unfeasible practice for various blockchain technology providers owing to the immutability characteristic. To overcome this challenge, mutable blockchain is highly demanded to solve previously mentioned issues, where controlled and supervised amendments to certain content within constrained privileges granted are suggested by several researchers through numerous blockchain redaction mechanisms using chameleon and non-chameleon hashing function approaches, and methods were proposed to achieve reasonable policies while ensuring high blockchain security levels. Accordingly, the current study seeks to thoroughly define redaction implementation challenges and security properties criteria. The analysis performed has mapped these criteria with chameleon-based research methodologies, technical approaches, and the latest cryptographic techniques implemented to resolve the challenge posed by the policy in which comparisons paved current open issues, leading to shaping future research directions in the scoped field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Blockchains and the IoT II)

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30 pages, 13547 KiB

Open AccessReview

Approaches and Challenges in Internet of Robotic Things

by Aqsa Sayeed, Chaman Verma, Neerendra Kumar, Neha Koul and Zoltán Illés

Future Internet 2022, 14(9), 265; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi14090265 - 14 Sep 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4520

Abstract

The Internet of robotic things (IoRT) is the combination of different technologies including cloud computing, robots, Internet of things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), and machine learning (ML). IoRT plays a major role in manufacturing, healthcare, security, and transport. IoRT can speed up human [...] Read more.

The Internet of robotic things (IoRT) is the combination of different technologies including cloud computing, robots, Internet of things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), and machine learning (ML). IoRT plays a major role in manufacturing, healthcare, security, and transport. IoRT can speed up human development by a very significant percentage. IoRT allows robots to transmit and receive data to and from other devices and users. In this paper, IoRT is reviewed in terms of the related techniques, architectures, and abilities. Consequently, the related research challenges are presented. IoRT architectures are vital in the design of robotic systems and robotic things. The existing 3–7-tier IoRT architectures are studied. Subsequently, a detailed IoRT architecture is proposed. Robotic technologies provide the means to increase the performance and capabilities of the user, product, or process. However, robotic technologies are vulnerable to attacks on data security. Trust-based and encryption-based mechanisms can be used for secure communication among robotic things. A security method is recommended to provide a secure and trustworthy data-sharing mechanism in IoRT. Significant security challenges are also discussed. Several known attacks on ad hoc networks are illustrated. Threat models ensure integrity confidentiality and availability of the data. In a network, trust models are used to boost a system’s security. Trust models and IoRT networks play a key role in obtaining a steady and nonvulnerable configuration in the network. In IoRT, remote server access results in remote software updates of robotic things. To study navigation strategies, navigation using fuzzy logic, probabilistic roadmap algorithms, laser scan matching algorithms, heuristic functions, bumper events, and vision-based navigation techniques are considered. Using the given research challenges, future researchers can get contemporary ideas of IoRT implementation in the real world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Blockchains and the IoT II)

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