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Evaluation and Protection of Wood and Wood Products

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A special issue of Forests (ISSN 1999-4907). This special issue belongs to the section "Wood Science and Forest Products".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 December 2021) | Viewed by 28346

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Dr. Lina Nunes

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Guest Editor

1. LNEC - National Laboratory for Civil Engineering, Structures Department, Lisbon, Portugal
2. CE3C - Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes, Angra do Heroísmo, Açores, Portugal
Interests: buildings; heritage conservation and reahabilitation; bio-based materials; performance; wood protection; integrated pest management

Dr. Dennis Jones

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Guest Editor

Wood Science and Engineering Division, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Luleå University of Technology, Skellefteå, Sweden
Interests: wood modification; performance; composites; wood chemistry; wood durability
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Bruno Esteves

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Guest Editor

1. Department of Wood Engineering, Polytechnic Institute of Viseu, 3504-510 Viseu, Portugal
2. CERNAS Research Centre for Natural Resources, Environment and Society, 3504-510 Viseu, Portugal
Interests: liquefaction; polyurethane foams; lignocellulosic composites; lignocellulosic materials
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Throughout human history, timber has been one of the most important materials, its versatility allowing it to be used for construction, weapons, tools, furniture, and art, to name but a few of its application areas. In construction, the role of wood throughout the last millennium has been superseded sequentially by stone, bricks, iron, steel, and concrete. Recently, industrial activities have been greatly influenced by environmental changes, which have placed a stronger focus on the necessity to meet human future demands through sustainable approaches. This has led to a renaissance in timber construction, so that timber is now considered the chief material for the 21st century.

However, given the biological nature of wood, under certain conditions it is susceptible to deterioration. Additionally, it can be easily destroyed by fire, as has happened in medieval towns and cities where widespread fires have burned important structures and items. Modern methods of manufacture, treatment, and design can now protect wood from such catastrophic incidents and limit its damage, but modern and historical structures containing timber still need to be monitored to ensure their preservation.

The aim of this Special Issue is to present many of the worldwide applications of wood and wood products, particularly within the topics:

Assessement and modelling of wood durability (e.g., moisture dynamics, biological susceptibility, weathering)
Performance of wood and other lignocellulosic materials and composites
Use of novel bio-based materials in building
Wood protection
Fire protection
Integrated pest control methods to avoid insect deterioration
Heritage conservation and rehabilitation

Dr. Lina Nunes
Dr. Dennis Jones
Dr. Bruno Esteves
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Forests is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Bio-based materials
Wood
Wood biodeterioration and weathering
Wood protection
Performance
Heritage conservation
Life-cycle assessment
Integrated pest management

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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9 pages, 2109 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Proof-of-Principle That Cellular Automata Can Be Used to Predict Infestation Risk by Reticulitermes grassei (Blattodea: Isoptera)

by João G. N. Sequeira, Tânia Nobre, Sónia Duarte, Dennis Jones, Bruno Esteves and Lina Nunes

Forests 2022, 13(2), 237; https://doi.org/10.3390/f13020237 - 03 Feb 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1573

Abstract

Over the past few decades, species distribution modelling has been increasingly used to monitor invasive species. Studies herein propose to use Cellular Automata (CA), not only to model the distribution of a potentially invasive species but also to infer the potential of the method in risk prediction of Reticulitermes grassei infestation. The test area was mainland Portugal, for which an available presence-only dataset was used. This is a typical dataset type, resulting from either distribution studies or infestation reports. Subterranean termite urban distributions in Portugal from 1970 to 2001 were simulated, and the results were compared with known records from both 2001 (the publication date of the distribution models for R. grassei in Portugal) and 2020. The reported model was able to predict the widespread presence of R. grassei, showing its potential as a viable prediction tool for R. grassei infestation risk in wooden structures, providing the collection of appropriate variables. Such a robust simulation tool can prove to be highly valuable in the decision-making process concerning pest management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evaluation and Protection of Wood and Wood Products)

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12 pages, 3398 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Radiata Pine Wood Treated with Copper Nanoparticles: Leaching Analysis and Fungal Degradation

by María Graciela Aguayo, Claudia Oviedo, Laura Reyes, José Navarrete, Liset Gómez, Hugo Torres, Gonzalo Gaviño and Ejnar Trollund

Forests 2021, 12(11), 1606; https://doi.org/10.3390/f12111606 - 21 Nov 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2465

Abstract

Radiata pine is the main wood species used in the Chilean construction industry, but it must be protected due to its low natural durability. Chemical protection of wood by impregnation allows for a more efficient utilization of the forest resources by extending its useful life. The use of nanoparticles in wood protection has garnered great interest during the last decade, due to their unique physicochemical properties, different from those of larger sized materials. In this research, the impregnation of radiata pine wood with copper nanoparticles (CuNP) was studied in terms of retention, penetration, leaching, and its protective effect against wood rot fungi growth according to EN 113, AWPA A3-91, A9-18, and E11-16. Penetration analysis confirmed a uniform distribution across the wood, with total penetration in the impregnated samples with the highest concentration solution of CuNP. Retention values of the impregnated wood increased proportionally with the concentration of nanoparticles evaluated by EDXRF. Leaching analysis showed copper removal during the first hours of the test, with a constant leaching rate up to 144 h. Impregnated wood mass loss (ML) due to exposure to Gloeophyllum trabeum and Rhodonia placenta fungi were significantly reduced regardless of the CuNP concentration or fungi tested, with an ML smaller than 5% and smaller than 14% for leached samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evaluation and Protection of Wood and Wood Products)

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17 pages, 6096 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chemical Components of Fungus Comb from Indo-Malayan Termite Macrotermes gilvus Hagen Mound and Its Bioactivity against Wood-Staining Fungi

by Dodi Nandika, Lina Karlinasari, Arinana Arinana, Irmanida Batubara, Putri Sari Sitanggang, Djoko Santoso, Lucia Dhiantika Witasari, Yanti Rachmayanti, Dikhi Firmansyah, I Ketut Sudiana and Desca Medika Hertanto

Forests 2021, 12(11), 1591; https://doi.org/10.3390/f12111591 - 18 Nov 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2697

Abstract

Recently, the architectural and physical properties of the fungus comb from subterranean termite Macrotermes gilvus Hagen (Isoptera: Termitidae) mounds had been studied and it is important to determine its chemical profile as well as to evaluate its anti-staining-fungi activity. The results showed that fungus comb of M. gilvus has a high crude ash (30.57%), fiber (25.46%), starch (7.76%), protein (5.80%, 5.53% amino acid), acid-insoluble ash (3.45%), and fat (0.73%). It also contained phenol hydroquinone, steroids, terpenoids, and saponin compounds. Seventeen amino acids were identified via high-performance liquid chromatography analysis, of which arginine, leucine, glutamate, and aspartic acid were the majority. According to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis, the n-hexane extract consists of several types of fatty acid derivatives. Meanwhile, the ethyl acetate (EtOAc) extracts were primarily phenol groups with 1,2,3-propanetriol (glycerol) at the highest relative concentration. Four fungus-comb extracts (n-hexane, EtOAc, MeOH, and water) inhibited the Aspergillus foetidus fungus, with inhibition rates ranging from 24.17% to 100% and EtOAc extract as the most active extract. It appears that EtOAc extracts from the M. gilvus fungus comb can be considered an active ingredient source of novel organic fungicide in preventing wood-staining fungi attacks on susceptible wood. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evaluation and Protection of Wood and Wood Products)

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9 pages, 1192 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Characterisation of Moisture in Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) Sapwood Modified with Maleic Anhydride and Sodium Hypophosphite

by Injeong Kim, Emil Engelund Thybring, Olov Karlsson, Dennis Jones, George I. Mantanis and Dick Sandberg

Forests 2021, 12(10), 1333; https://doi.org/10.3390/f12101333 - 29 Sep 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1875

Abstract

In this study, the wood–water interactions in Scots pine sapwood modified with maleic anhydride (MA) and sodium hypophosphite (SHP) was studied in the water-saturated state. The water in wood was studied with low field nuclear magnetic resonance (LFNMR) and the hydrophilicity of cell walls was studied by infrared spectroscopy after deuteration using liquid D₂O. The results of LFNMR showed that the spin–spin relaxation (T₂) time of cell wall water decreased by modification, while T₂ of capillary water increased. Furthermore, the moisture content and the amount of water in cell walls of modified wood were lower than for unmodified samples at the water-saturated state. Although the amount of accessible hydroxyl groups in modified wood did not show any significant difference compared with unmodified wood, the increase in T₂ of capillary water indicates a decreased affinity of the wood cell wall to water. However, for the cell wall water, the physical confinement within the cell walls seemed to overrule the weaker wood–water interactions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evaluation and Protection of Wood and Wood Products)

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19 pages, 1802 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Oil in Water Nanoemulsions Loaded with Tebuconazole for Populus Wood Protection against White- and Brown-Rot Fungi

by Alejandro Lucia, Mónica Murace, Gastón Sartor, Gabriel Keil, Ricardo Cámera, Ramón G. Rubio and Eduardo Guzmán

Forests 2021, 12(9), 1234; https://doi.org/10.3390/f12091234 - 10 Sep 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2157

Abstract

Eugenol in water nanoemulsions loaded with tebuconazole appear as a very promising alternative formulations for wood protection against xylophagous fungi that are the main species responsible for different rots in wood structures. The dispersions as prepared and upon dilution (impregnation mixtures) were characterized by the apparent hydrodynamic diameter distribution of the oil droplets loaded with tebuconazole and their long-term stability. The impregnation mixtures were applied on wood of Populus canadensis I-214 clone by using a pressure-vacuum system, and the effectiveness against fungal degradation by Gloeophyllum sepiarium and Pycnoporus sanguineus fungi was determined. The retention of tebuconazole in wood was about 40% of the amount contained in the impregnation mixtures. The results showed that the impregnation process leads to a long-term antifungal protection to the wood, with the mass loss after 16 weeks being reduced more than 10 times in relation to the control (untreated poplar wood) and the reference wood (untreated beech wood). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evaluation and Protection of Wood and Wood Products)

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15 pages, 1295 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Termite Resistance, Chemical and Mechanical Characterization of Paulownia tomentosa Wood before and after Heat Treatment

by Bruno Esteves, Helena Ferreira, Hélder Viana, José Ferreira, Idalina Domingos, Luísa Cruz-Lopes, Dennis Jones and Lina Nunes

Forests 2021, 12(8), 1114; https://doi.org/10.3390/f12081114 - 20 Aug 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 2821

Abstract

The introduction of new species in forest management must be undertaken with a degree of care, to help prevent the spread of invasive species. However, new species with higher profitability are needed to increase forest products value and the resilience of rural populations. Paulownia tomentosa has an extremely fast growth. The objective and novelty of this work was to study the potential use of young Paulownia trees grown in Portugal by using heat treatment to improve its properties, thereby allowing higher value applications of the wood. The average chemical composition of untreated and heat-treated wood was determined. The extractive content was determined by successive Soxhlet extraction with dichloromethane (DCM), ethanol and water as solvents. The composition of lipophilic extracts was performed by injection in GC-MS with mass detection. Insoluble and soluble lignin, holocellulose and α-cellulose were also determined. Physical (density and water absorption and dimensional stability) and mechanical properties (bending strength and bending stiffness) and termite resistance was also determined. Results showed that extractive content increased in all solvents, lignin and α-cellulose also increased and hemicelluloses decreased. Compounds derived from the thermal degradation of lignin were found in heat-treated wood extractions. Dimensional stability improved but there was a decrease in mechanical properties. Resistance against termites was better for untreated wood than for heat-treated wood, possibly due to the thermal degradation of some toxic extractives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evaluation and Protection of Wood and Wood Products)

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15 pages, 4466 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Conductivity of Poplar Wood Veneer Impregnated with Graphene/Polyvinyl Alcohol

by Shuang-Shuang Wu, Xin Tao and Wei Xu

Forests 2021, 12(6), 777; https://doi.org/10.3390/f12060777 - 12 Jun 2021

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 3154

Abstract

Intending to achieve more green and economical graphene impregnated modified fast-growing poplar wood veneer for heat conduction, this study proposes and investigates the feasibility of modified veneer with graphene/Polyvinyl alcohol (Gr/PVA) impregnation mixture to improve its thermal conductivity. The absorbance and viscosity of the Gr/PVA impregnation mixtures are observed to expound the Gr/PVA ratio effects on the mixtures. Simultaneously, the weight percent gain, chromatic aberration, and thermal conductivity of the modified veneers are measured to determine the impregnation effect and the optimal impregnation formula. Further, the chemical structure, crystallinity, and thermal stability of the optimal sample impregnated with Gr/PVA are tested. The results show that the thermal properties of the Gr/PVA impregnated modified veneer have not all been improved. Still, both the dispersibility of the impregnation mixtures and the impregnation effect is affected by the Gr/PVA ratio. The data shows that the optimal thermal conductivity of modified veneer, which is up to 0.22 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹ and 2.4 times the untreated one, is dipped by the mixture of 10 wt.% PVA concentration and 2 wt.% MGEIN addition. According to the characterization tests, the crystallinity of the modified veneer reduces, but the thermal stability improves. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evaluation and Protection of Wood and Wood Products)

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10 pages, 1855 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fluid Flow of Polar and Less Polar Liquids through Modified Poplar Wood

by Hamid R. Taghiyari, Hanieh Abbasi, Holger Militz and Antonios N. Papadopoulos

Forests 2021, 12(4), 482; https://doi.org/10.3390/f12040482 - 14 Apr 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1446

Abstract

Fast-growing species often have a low natural durability and can easily be attacked by fungi and insects, and therefore it is often better to preserve them before use. Permeability is a physical property in porous media that significantly affects the penetration of water- and oil-based preservatives into the texture of wood. In the present study, the specific gas permeability and liquid permeability to water and kerosene in poplar wood (Populus nigra var. betulifolia) were measured. The poplar trees were grown in plots with two spacings of 3 × 4 m and 3 × 8 m. Separate sets of specimens were also thermally modified in order to examinethe effects of this modification on gas and liquid permeability values. The results showed higher gas permeability in specimens grown in the plot with wider spacing (3 × 8 m), which was attributed to their larger vessel diameter. Kerosene demonstrated significantly higher permeability in comparison to water. This was attributed to the polar nature of water molecules, which tend to make stronger bonds with wood cell-wall polymers, ultimately delaying the movement of water through vessel elements. Thermal modification had an increasing effect on specific gas permeability. The increase was attributed to cracks that occur in the pits and wood cell wall during thermal modification, making way for the easier flow of fluids. Decreased wettability caused by thermal modification resulted in a significant increase in both water and kerosene permeability values. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evaluation and Protection of Wood and Wood Products)

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15 pages, 5467 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rheological Properties of Wood–Plastic Composites by 3D Numerical Simulations: Different Components

by Xingcong Lv, Xiaolong Hao, Rongxian Ou, Tao Liu, Chuigen Guo, Qingwen Wang, Xin Yi and Lichao Sun

Forests 2021, 12(4), 417; https://doi.org/10.3390/f12040417 - 31 Mar 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1926

Abstract

The rheological properties of wood–plastic composites (WPCs) with different wood fiber contents were investigated using a rotational rheometer under low shear rates. The flow field information was analyzed and simulated by Ansys Polyflow software. The results showed that the WPCs with different wood fiber contents behaved as typical power-law fluids. A higher wood fiber content increased the shear thinning ability and pseudoplasticity of the WPCs. The pressure, velocity, shear rate, and viscosity distributions of the WPC during extrusion could be predicted by computational fluid dynamics (CFD) Ansys Polyflow software to explore the effects of different components on the flow field of WPCs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evaluation and Protection of Wood and Wood Products)

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13 pages, 1278 KiB

Open AccessReview

Thermally Modified Wood Exposed to Different Weathering Conditions: A Review

by Delfina Godinho, Solange de Oliveira Araújo, Teresa Quilhó, Teresa Diamantino and Jorge Gominho

Forests 2021, 12(10), 1400; https://doi.org/10.3390/f12101400 - 14 Oct 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3018

Abstract

Outdoor wood applications are exposed to several different biotic and abiotic factors, and for that reason, they require protection to increase their service life. Several technologies of wood protection are already commercialized. One of these technologies is thermal modification, which refers to the structural, mechanical, and chemical transformations occurring in the lignocellulosic material when gradually heated up to specific temperature ranges. In the past few years, several researchers have undertaken weathering resistance evaluations on different wood species. Some cases have considered natural exposure in different countries with different climatic conditions, while others focused on artificial exposure under UV and xenon radiation tests. Most works evaluated the weathering effects on the chemical, mechanical and physical, and anatomical shifts compared to the original characteristics of the material. This review has established a considerable lack of studies in the bibliography focusing on abiotic factors, such as the industrial and maritime environment, or even isolated climatic factors such as salt spray (simulating maritime environments) or pollutant gases (simulating industrial environments). This lack of information can be an opportunity for future work. It could help to understand if thermally modified wood is or is not sensitive to pollutant gases or salinity, or to a combination of both. By knowing the degradation mechanisms caused by these factors, it will be possible to study other forms of protection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evaluation and Protection of Wood and Wood Products)

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17 pages, 2255 KiB

Open AccessReview

Characterization of Water in Wood by Time-Domain Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (TD-NMR): A Review

by Jingyu Li and Erni Ma

Forests 2021, 12(7), 886; https://doi.org/10.3390/f12070886 - 07 Jul 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3208

Abstract

This review summarizes the development of the experimental technique and analytical method for using TD-NMR to study wood-water interactions in recent years. We briefly introduce the general concept of TD-NMR and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and demonstrate their applications for characterizing the following aspects of wood-water interactions: water state, fiber saturation state, water distribution at the cellular scale, and water migration in wood. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the utilizations and future research opportunities of TD-NMR in wood-water relations. It should be noted that this review does not cover the NMR methods that provide chemical resolution of wood macromolecules, such as solid-state NMR. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evaluation and Protection of Wood and Wood Products)

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