Food Perception: Taste, Smell and Flavour

A special issue of Foods (ISSN 2304-8158).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (5 September 2022) | Viewed by 30637

Special Issue Editors

Department of Nutrition, Food Science and Packaging, San Jose State University, San Jose, CA 95192, USA
Interests: meat science; flavor chemistry; sensory evaluation; food quality
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
Interests: polysaccharides; proteomics; metabonomics; intestinal flora
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Eating is an essential activity to acquire energy and necessary nutrients. When food is chewed it is broken down by teeth and further digested by enzymes in saliva. Its taste, aroma and textural characteristics are perceived and contribute to food perception. Amongst the above-mentioned characteristics aroma and taste are the most important ones, attributed to the release of non-volatile and volatile compounds. These non-volatile and volatile compounds react with the senses in human tongues or noses to evoke brain responses. Recently, scientists have tried to establish connections between biochemistry indexes and sensory characteristics, and multiple models have been proposed. However, there is still a gap between the perception of foods and their physicochemical properties. In this Special Issue we aim to publish innovative research results and review papers that provide a fundamental understanding of food perception and relevant factors that contribute to it. We also encourage potential authors to submit articles concerned with the application of biosensors to food perception. Articles that discuss the effects of food processing, pre/post-harvest, packaging, etc., on sensory characteristics are also welcomed.

Dr. Xi Feng
Dr. Yanping Chen
Dr. Ying Liu
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

  • food perception
  • taste
  • aroma
  • sensory evaluation
  • food quality
  • analytical technology
  • biosensors

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

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3 pages, 164 KiB  
Editorial
Food Perception: Taste, Smell and Flavour
by Yanping Chen, Ying Liu and Xi Feng
Foods 2023, 12(19), 3628; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12193628 - 29 Sep 2023
Viewed by 992
Abstract
Flavor is the most important sensory quality in food [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Perception: Taste, Smell and Flavour)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

13 pages, 2547 KiB  
Article
Novel Umami Peptides from Hypsizygus marmoreus and Interaction with Umami Receptor T1R1/T1R3
by Xiaobo Dong, Chao Wan, Aiyun Huang, Huaide Xu and Hongjie Lei
Foods 2023, 12(4), 703; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12040703 - 06 Feb 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1959
Abstract
Umami peptides are important taste components of foods. In this study, umami peptides from Hypsizygus marmoreus hydrolysate were purified through ultrafiltration, gel filtration chromatography, and RP-HPLC, and then identified using LC-MS/MS. The binding mechanism of umami peptides with the receptor, T1R1/T1R3, was investigated [...] Read more.
Umami peptides are important taste components of foods. In this study, umami peptides from Hypsizygus marmoreus hydrolysate were purified through ultrafiltration, gel filtration chromatography, and RP-HPLC, and then identified using LC-MS/MS. The binding mechanism of umami peptides with the receptor, T1R1/T1R3, was investigated using computational simulations. Five novel umami peptides were obtained: VYPFPGPL, YIHGGS, SGSLGGGSG, SGLAEGSG, and VEAGP. Molecular docking results demonstrated that all five umami peptides could enter the active pocket in T1R1; Arg277, Tyr220, and Glu301 were key binding sites; and hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interaction were critical interaction forces. VL-8 had the highest affinity for T1R3. Molecular dynamics simulations demonstrated that VYPFPGPL (VL-8) could be steadily packed inside the binding pocket of T1R1 and the electrostatic interaction was the dominant driving force of the complex (VL-8-T1R1/T1R3) formation. Arg residues (151, 277, 307, and 365) were important contributors to binding affinities. These findings provide valuable insights for the development of umami peptides in edible mushrooms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Perception: Taste, Smell and Flavour)
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13 pages, 5940 KiB  
Article
Effects of Maturity and Processing on the Volatile Components, Phytochemical Profiles and Antioxidant Activity of Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) Leaf
by Zhili Ma, Yu Ma, Yin Liu, Bei Zhou, Yalin Zhao, Ping Wu, Dexin Zhang and Deyuan Li
Foods 2023, 12(1), 198; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12010198 - 02 Jan 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2013
Abstract
In this study, fresh lotus leaves at two maturity stages were processed to tea products by different methods (white-tea process, green-tea process and black-tea process). The volatile compounds, phytochemical profiles and antioxidant activities of lotus-leaf tea were investigated. A total of 81 volatile [...] Read more.
In this study, fresh lotus leaves at two maturity stages were processed to tea products by different methods (white-tea process, green-tea process and black-tea process). The volatile compounds, phytochemical profiles and antioxidant activities of lotus-leaf tea were investigated. A total of 81 volatile components were identified with HS-GC-IMS. The mature lotus-leaf tea showed more volatile compounds than the tender lotus-leaf tea. The lotus leaf treated with the white-tea process had more aroma components than other processing methods. In addition, six types of phenolic compounds, including luteolin, catechin, quercetin, orientin, hyperoside and rutin were identified in the lotus-leaf tea. The mature leaves treated with the green-tea process had the highest levels of TPC (49.97 mg gallic acid/g tea) and TFC (73.43 mg rutin/g tea). The aqueous extract of lotus-leaf tea showed positive scavenging capacities of DPPH and ABTS radicals, and ferric ion reducing power, whereas tender lotus leaf treated with the green-tea process exhibited the strongest antioxidant activity. What is more, the antioxidant activities had a significant positive correlation with the levels of TPC and TFC in lotus-leaf tea. Our results provide a theoretical basis for the manufacture of lotus-leaf-tea products with desirable flavor and health benefits. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Perception: Taste, Smell and Flavour)
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15 pages, 2124 KiB  
Article
The Flavor Profiles of Highland Barley Fermented with Different Mushroom Mycelium
by Kai Wang, Cuicui Yang, Ziyan Dai, Zhenxiang Wen, Yin Liu, Xi Feng, Ying Liu and Wen Huang
Foods 2022, 11(24), 3949; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11243949 - 07 Dec 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1735
Abstract
Highland barley was fermented with Cordyceps militaris, Stropharia rugoso-annulata, Morchella esculenta, Schizophyllum commune and Tremella sanguinea. The flavor profiles were investigated by electronic nose (E-nose), headspace solid-phase microextraction gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC-MS) and sensory evaluation by train panel. Fermentation [...] Read more.
Highland barley was fermented with Cordyceps militaris, Stropharia rugoso-annulata, Morchella esculenta, Schizophyllum commune and Tremella sanguinea. The flavor profiles were investigated by electronic nose (E-nose), headspace solid-phase microextraction gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC-MS) and sensory evaluation by train panel. Fermentation with mushroom mycelium was able to change the aroma profile of highland barley. The original strong grassy taste was reduced due to a decrease in hexanal, decanal and 2-pentylfuran, and new aromatic flavors (floral, sweet and mushroom fragrance) were acquired after fermentation. The overall flavor of the fermented highland barley varied with mushroom strains. Schizophyllum commune gave a heavier sour taste to the fermented highland barley. However, fermentation with T. sanguinea increased the content of methyl 4-methoxybenzoate making the sample difficult to accepted. Fermentation with C. militaris, M. esculenta, and S. rugoso-annulata increased the volatile contents. The high levels of 1-octen-3-ol and esters gave a strong mushroom, oily and fruity flavor. Morchella esculenta showed the best performance and the highest acceptance in the fermented highland barley. Our results suggest that fermentation with mushroom mycelium can improve the flavor of highland barley, which provides an innovative utilization of highland barley. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Perception: Taste, Smell and Flavour)
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13 pages, 1362 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Volatile Compounds in Jinhua ham Using Three Extraction Methods Combined with Gas Chromatography–Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry
by Dengyong Liu, Cong Yang, Lu Bai, Xi Feng, Yanping Chen, Yin Zhang and Yuan Liu
Foods 2022, 11(23), 3897; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11233897 - 02 Dec 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1562
Abstract
The volatile compounds in Jinhua ham samples after different aging times were characterized using solvent-assisted flavor evaporation (SAFE), solid-phase microextraction (SPME), and needle trap (NT) extraction methods combined with gas chromatography–time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC–TOF/MS). Hundreds of aroma compounds were identified, including aldehydes, alcohols, [...] Read more.
The volatile compounds in Jinhua ham samples after different aging times were characterized using solvent-assisted flavor evaporation (SAFE), solid-phase microextraction (SPME), and needle trap (NT) extraction methods combined with gas chromatography–time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC–TOF/MS). Hundreds of aroma compounds were identified, including aldehydes, alcohols, ketones, furans, esters, acids, pyrazines, and sulfides. The results showed that NT extracted the greatest number of volatile compounds, whereas the extraction efficiency of SPME headspace adsorption was highest among the three sample preparation methods. Principal component analysis of SPME effectively distinguished the variation in the aroma of the Jinhua hams specific to aging time. Butyrolactone, 2,6-dimethylpyrazine, 2,3,5-trimethylpyrazine, phenylacetaldehyde, and acetic acid were considered as the main volatile compounds in the Jinhua ham samples at three years of aging. The results showed that SPME–GC–TOF/MS effectively discriminated among samples by age. By comparing the three extraction methods, this study provides a theoretical basis for the selection of extraction methods of volatile aroma compounds in Jinhua ham. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Perception: Taste, Smell and Flavour)
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14 pages, 2783 KiB  
Article
GC–MS Untargeted Analysis of Volatile Compounds in Four Red Grape Varieties (Vitis vinifera L. cv) at Different Maturity Stages near Harvest
by Xiaobo Gu, Xue Zhang, Keqing Wang, Xi Lv, Ruyi Li and Wen Ma
Foods 2022, 11(18), 2804; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11182804 - 11 Sep 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1639
Abstract
Grape volatile compounds directly determine the aroma quality of wines. Although the aroma profile of grapes evolved greatly at different maturity stages, there were less considerations for aroma status when determining grape harvest time. In the present study, several maturation indicators, namely, sugars/acids [...] Read more.
Grape volatile compounds directly determine the aroma quality of wines. Although the aroma profile of grapes evolved greatly at different maturity stages, there were less considerations for aroma status when determining grape harvest time. In the present study, several maturation indicators, namely, sugars/acids ratio, free volatile compounds, bound volatile compounds and IBMP (3-isobutyl-2-methoxypyrazine) content were monitored in four red wine grape varieties (Vitis vinifera L. cv Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Gernischet, Cabernet Franc and Merlot) near harvest time (42 days) in Ningxia, China. The results showed that the highest sugars/acids ratio was reached on day 21 and day 28 for Merlot and the other three varieties, respectively. For both free and bound volatile compounds, the content of carbonyl compounds decreased continuously in the process of ripening. The contents of free alcohols, esters and terpenes increased in the ripening stage and decreased in the stage of over-ripening. The accumulation of favorable bound aroma compounds peaked at day 35. The content of IBMP presenting a green smell in all four varieties descended continuously and kept steady from day 28. Therefore, the present findings revealed that the best aroma maturity time of four studied grape varieties was later than the sugars/acids ratio in Ningxia region. Aroma maturity should be taken into account during harvest time determination. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Perception: Taste, Smell and Flavour)
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13 pages, 545 KiB  
Article
The Enhancement of the Perception of Saltiness by Odorants Selected from Chinese Douchi in Salt Solution
by Ya Gao, Wenqian Wang, Huiying Zhang, Haitao Chen, Shuqi Wang and Baoguo Sun
Foods 2022, 11(15), 2260; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11152260 - 28 Jul 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2194
Abstract
Douchi is a traditional fermented soya bean product that is popular for its smelled saltiness and unique flavor. In order to look for the relationship between smelled saltiness of volatiles and their saltiness-enhancing properties, gas chromatography-olfactometry/associated taste was used to select odorants associated [...] Read more.
Douchi is a traditional fermented soya bean product that is popular for its smelled saltiness and unique flavor. In order to look for the relationship between smelled saltiness of volatiles and their saltiness-enhancing properties, gas chromatography-olfactometry/associated taste was used to select odorants associated with saltiness in Yongchuan Douchi. The enhancement effects of saltiness intensity by selected odorants were further verified by sensory evaluation analyses of 2-alternative forced-choice and odor-induced saltiness enhancement in a follow-up study. A total of 14 odorant compounds were selected for their odor-associated saltiness perception. The compounds of 2-ethyl-3,5-dimethyl pyrazine, 2,5-dimethyl pyrazine, dimethyl trisulfide, 3-(methylthio) propanol and 3-(methylthio) propanal could significantly enhance saltiness perception in salt solution. Among them, 2-ethyl-3,5-dimethyl pyrazine was reported for the first time to be able to improve the salty taste. The study suggested that salty food is an ideal material for selecting saltiness-enhancing odorants, which could provide more direct theoretical support for salt reduction in the food industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Perception: Taste, Smell and Flavour)
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12 pages, 2173 KiB  
Article
Molecular Cloning and Functional Analysis of DXS and FPS Genes from Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim
by Lu Tian, Jingwei Shi, Lin Yang and Anzhi Wei
Foods 2022, 11(12), 1746; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11121746 - 14 Jun 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1723
Abstract
Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim. (Z. bungeanum) has attracted attention for its rich aroma. The aroma of Z. bungeanum is mainly volatile terpenes synthesized by plant terpene metabolic pathways. However, there is little information on Z. bungeanum terpene metabolic gene. In this [...] Read more.
Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim. (Z. bungeanum) has attracted attention for its rich aroma. The aroma of Z. bungeanum is mainly volatile terpenes synthesized by plant terpene metabolic pathways. However, there is little information on Z. bungeanum terpene metabolic gene. In this study, the coding sequence of 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase (DXS) and farnesyl pyrophosphate synthase (FPS) were cloned from Z. bungeanum cv. ‘Fengxiandahongpao.’ ZbDXS and ZbFPS genes from Z. bungeanum with CDS lengths of 2172 bp and 1029 bp, respectively. The bioinformatics results showed that Z. bungeanum was closely related to citrus, and it was deduced that ZbFPS were hydrophilic proteins without the transmembrane domain. Subcellular localization prediction indicated that ZbDXS was most likely to be located in chloroplasts, and ZbFPS was most likely to be in mitochondria. Meanwhile, the 3D protein structure showed that ZbDXS and ZbFPS were mainly composed of α-helices, which were folded into a single domain. In vitro enzyme activity experiments showed that purified proteins ZbDXS and ZbFPS had the functions of DXS enzyme and FPS enzyme. Transient expression of ZbDXS and ZbFPS in tobacco significantly increased tobacco’s terpene content. Moreover, ZbDXS and ZbFPS were expressed in different tissues of Z. bungeanum, and the relative expression of the two genes was the highest in fruits. Therefore, this suggests that ZbDXS and ZbFPS are positively related to terpene synthesis. This study could provide reference genes for improving Z. bungeanum breeding as well as for the Rutaceae research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Perception: Taste, Smell and Flavour)
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23 pages, 3389 KiB  
Article
Consumer Expectation of Flavored Water Function, Sensory Quality, and Sugar Reduction, and the Impact of Demographic Variables and Woman Consumer Segment
by Uijeong An, Xiaofen Du and Wanyi Wang
Foods 2022, 11(10), 1434; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11101434 - 16 May 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3708
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate consumer expectation of flavored water and potential consumer segments. The results showed flavored water was ranked the fourth most popular drink, after plain water, tea, and coffee, by 901 participants. Consumers highly expected functional flavored water with refreshing [...] Read more.
This study aimed to investigate consumer expectation of flavored water and potential consumer segments. The results showed flavored water was ranked the fourth most popular drink, after plain water, tea, and coffee, by 901 participants. Consumers highly expected functional flavored water with refreshing (87.4% selection), thirst-quenching (73.7%), and tasty (65.7%) qualities, containing vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, and providing energy. Expected flavored water sensory qualities included temperature (62.4%), flavor (52.4%), and sweet taste (47.4%); lemon, berry, and lime flavors were most preferred, while bitterness, irritation, astringency, and sourness were least preferred. Pure sugar and honey were rated highest as the sweeteners for flavored water. Likewise, consumers were mostly concerned with taste followed by calories. Single demographic variables (age, reported health condition, drinking frequency, educational level) significantly influenced (p ≤ 0.05) flavored water function, sensory quality, and sugar reduction expectations. Females had higher expectation of flavored water’s refreshing and antioxidant functions. Cluster analysis revealed two consumer segments. The younger, low-education, self-reportedly less healthy cluster (mainly college students) expected various functions and flavors such as low temperature, cooling taste, diverse flavors, and sweet taste (and disliked bitterness). The older, educated, employed, self-reportedly healthy cluster had lower expectations of flavored water functions, were less sensitive to bitterness, and preferred no sweetness or little sweetness. These findings provide informative data to establish marketing and sales strategies for promoting flavored water. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Perception: Taste, Smell and Flavour)
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13 pages, 2640 KiB  
Article
Sensory Description and Consumer Hedonic Perception of Ultra-High Temperature (UHT) Milk
by Yufang Su, Houyin Wang, Ziyan Wu, Lei Zhao, Wenqiang Huang, Bolin Shi, Jian He, Sisi Wang and Kui Zhong
Foods 2022, 11(9), 1350; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11091350 - 06 May 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5064
Abstract
Sensory characteristics of products play an essential role on the consumer’ s acceptability, preference and consuming behavior choice. The sensory profiles and consumer hedonic perception for 14 UHT milk products using sensory quantitatively descriptive analysis and a 9-point hedonic scale were investigated in [...] Read more.
Sensory characteristics of products play an essential role on the consumer’ s acceptability, preference and consuming behavior choice. The sensory profiles and consumer hedonic perception for 14 UHT milk products using sensory quantitatively descriptive analysis and a 9-point hedonic scale were investigated in this study. There were significant differences in the sensory attributes intensity and liking scores among the organic whole milk, ordinary whole milk, low-fat milk, and skimmed milk (p < 0.05). Skimmed milk samples had lowest intensity scores of typical milk aroma, taste flavor and texture attributes, as well as had the lowest overall liking scores. Whole milk samples had higher sensory intensity scores than low-fat milk samples, even though no significant differences of overall liking scores were observed between whole milk and low-fat milk. Furthermore, the relationship between the sensory attribute and overall liking was demonstrated according to correlation analysis and partial least squares regression (PLSR) analysis. Overall liking increased significantly with the increasing of sweet, after milk aroma, protein-like, mellow and thick, while decreased significantly with the enhancement of cowy, cooked and whey (p < 0.05). These findings presented a potential strategy for identifying the key sensory attributes responsible for liking score differences among different kinds of UHT milk products. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Perception: Taste, Smell and Flavour)
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15 pages, 1211 KiB  
Article
Effect of Addition of Fermented Soy Sauce on Quality Characteristics of Pork Patties during Refrigerated Storage
by Yun-a Kim, Sanghun Park, Yunhwan Park, Gyutae Park, Sehyuk Oh and Jungseok Choi
Foods 2022, 11(7), 1004; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11071004 - 29 Mar 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1984
Abstract
This study aimed to determine whether fermented soy sauce has a mutually synergistic effect on the quality and storage properties of pork patties, and to investigate the effects on the availability and physicochemical properties of various taste ingredients of soy sauce, a traditional [...] Read more.
This study aimed to determine whether fermented soy sauce has a mutually synergistic effect on the quality and storage properties of pork patties, and to investigate the effects on the availability and physicochemical properties of various taste ingredients of soy sauce, a traditional Korean food ingredient. The experimental groups were as follows: Control (−): No additives; Control (+): 0.1% ascorbic acid; T1: 1% fermented soy sauce; T2: 3% fermented soy sauce; T3: 5% fermented soy sauce. No significant difference was detected in moisture, protein, and fat among the various treatment groups; however, ash content and water holding capacity increased and texture properties improved with the concentration of fermented soy sauce. The addition of fermented soy sauce during refrigerated storage for 10 days showed a positive effect on the storage properties. The peroxide value, content of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and total phenolics, and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl free radical scavenging activity differed significantly in pork patties with different treatments and storage intervals. The effect of fermented soy sauce on the overall quality and storage properties of pork patties during refrigerated storage is relatively unknown. These findings demonstrate that the addition of fermented soy sauce improves the quality properties and antioxidant activity of pork patties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Perception: Taste, Smell and Flavour)
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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

20 pages, 1298 KiB  
Review
Advances in the Formation and Control Methods of Undesirable Flavors in Fish
by Tianle Wu, Meiqian Wang, Peng Wang, Honglei Tian and Ping Zhan
Foods 2022, 11(16), 2504; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11162504 - 19 Aug 2022
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3380
Abstract
Undesirable flavor formation in fish is a dynamic biological process, decreasing the overall flavor quality of fish products and impeding the sale of fresh fish. This review extensively summarizes chemical compounds contributing to undesirable flavors and their sources or formation. Specifically, hexanal, heptanal, [...] Read more.
Undesirable flavor formation in fish is a dynamic biological process, decreasing the overall flavor quality of fish products and impeding the sale of fresh fish. This review extensively summarizes chemical compounds contributing to undesirable flavors and their sources or formation. Specifically, hexanal, heptanal, nonanal, 1−octen−3−ol, 1−penten−3−ol, (E,E)−2,4−heptadienal, (E,E)−2,4−decadienal, trimethylamine, dimethyl sulfide, 2−methyl−butanol, etc., are characteristic compounds causing off−odors. These volatile compounds are mainly generated via enzymatic reactions, lipid autoxidation, environmentally derived reactions, and microbial actions. A brief description of progress in existing deodorization methods for controlling undesirable flavors in fish, e.g., proper fermenting, defatting, appropriate use of food additives, and packaging, is also presented. Lastly, we propose a developmental method regarding the multifunctional natural active substances made available during fish processing or packaging, which hold great potential in controlling undesirable flavors in fish due to their safety and efficiency in deodorization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Perception: Taste, Smell and Flavour)
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