Technical Forum for Fire Science Laboratory and Field Methods

A topical collection in Fire (ISSN 2571-6255). This collection belongs to the section "Fire Science Models, Remote Sensing, and Data".

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Department of Geography, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QE, UK
Interests: fire and the Earth system; fire behavior; fire severity

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School of Natural Sciences, The University of Tasmania, Private Bag 55Hobart TAS 7001, Australia
Interests: fire ecology; pyrogeography; human fire use; landscape ecology; biogeography; wildlife management; fire and soils; vegetation dynamics; flammability; smoke health effects; fire management policy

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Department of Geographical Sciences, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20740, USA
Interests: wildfire; fire; remote sensing; land cover; land use
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Turbulence and Energy Systems Laboratory (teslacu.org) Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
Interests: high-fidelity simulations; physics-based combustion; computational fluid dynamics

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Department of Forest & Rangeland Stewardship, Colorado State University, 1472 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
Interests: wildland fire science; fire behavior modeling and simulation; fuel dynamics; fuel management; forest restoration; fire ecology; disturbance ecology
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Rocky Mountain Research Station, USDA Forest Service, 5775 US West Highway 10, Missoula, MT 59808, USA
Interests: fire behavior; ecophysiology; phenology; modeling
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Los Alamos National Laboratory, Earth and Environmental Science Division, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA
Interests: wildfire behavior; atmosphere/turbine interaction; ecosystem/atmosphere coupling; turbulence; multiphase flow

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United States Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Missoula Fire Sciences Laboratory, 5775 Hwy 10 W, Missoula, MT 59808, USA
Interests: burning rates; convection ignition; physics of fire spread

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USDA Forest Service, 320 Green Street, Athens, GA 30602-2044, USA
Interests: fire ecology; ecophysiology; forest disturbance; interactions among disturbances; conservation biology and management of rare and endangered species

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Worcester Polytechnic Institute 100 Institute Rd, Worcester, MA 01609, USA
Interests: fires; combustion; wildland fires; wildfires

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Fire Research Department, Instytut Techniki Budowlanej, Filtrowa 1 St., Warsaw 00-611, Poland
Interests: smoke management; wind and fire coupled modeling; CFD modeling; building fires; visibility in smoke; smart systems in fire safety; smoke dispersion in the urban environment

Topical Collection Information

Dear Colleagues,

Since the 1950s, significant advances in wildland fire science have arisen due to research at combustion laboratories and during scaling and validation experiments in planned landscape fires. Often, calibration experiments, technical descriptions of methods and equipment, and descriptions of data go unpublished or are relegated to supplemental material. However, this can make it difficult for standards to be identified or for mistakes to be avoided by subsequent researchers. Furthermore, available data on physical properties such as thermal conductivity, bulk density, specific gravity, and heat of combustion are often difficult to find. This Topical Collection provides a permanent forum for wildland fire combustion laboratory and associated field researchers to share advances associated with data, equipment, and analytical methods.

We welcome articles, technical notes, reviews, perspectives and viewpoints, and conference papers. Articles should seek to validate or cross-compare a method or model using laboratory or in situ measurements.

Topics can include but are not limited to technical descriptions and assessments of the following:

  • Combustion laboratory experimental designs to explore any aspect of fire science (structural or wildland fire).
  • Landscape fire or in situ field experimental designs that scale up laboratory research to assess wildland fuel, fire behavior, or fire effects.
  • Models used in structural or wildland fire science, provided information is included on how they can be validated using laboratory or in situ measurements.
  • Sensors, methods, and equipment to measure properties of wildland fuel in combustion laboratories and scaled-up in situ fires (e.g., moisture content, mineral and chemical composition, bulk density, flammability).
  • Sensors, methods, and equipment to measure properties of fire behavior in combustion laboratories and scaled-up in-situ fires (e.g., rates of spread, heat transfer, air flow, flame heights, temperatures, environmental conditions).
  • Sensors, methods, and equipment to measure properties of post-fire effects in combustion laboratories and scaled-up in situ fires (e.g., emissions, mass-loss rates, plant morphology and physiology, soil processes).
  • Calibration and validation experiments related to models or new sensors and equipment in combustion laboratories and scaled-up in situ fires.
  • Technical notes describing how to correctly conduct common fire science laboratory and in situ measurements, especially where mistakes are common in the literature or in practice.
  • Articles focused on scaling of research from laboratories to in situ fires.

Prof. Dr. Claire Belcher
Dr. David M.J.S. Bowman
Dr. Evan Ellicott
Dr. Peter Hamlington
Dr. Chad M. Hoffma
Dr. William M. Jolly
Dr. Rodman Linn
Dr. Sara McAllister
Dr. Joseph O'Brien
Prof. Dr. Albert Simeoni
Dr. Alistair M. S. Smith
Dr. Wojciech Węgrzyński
Collection Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the collection website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Fire is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • calibration
  • validation
  • modeling
  • data
  • standards
  • scaling

Published Papers (10 papers)

2022

Jump to: 2021

13 pages, 3644 KiB  
Article
Longleaf Pine Seedlings Are Extremely Resilient to the Combined Effects of Experimental Fire and Drought
by Luke A. Wilson, Robert N. Spencer, Doug P. Aubrey, Joseph J. O’Brien, Alistair M. S. Smith, Ream W. Thomas and Daniel M. Johnson
Fire 2022, 5(5), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire5050128 - 27 Aug 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2129
Abstract
The longleaf pine ecosystem is dependent on frequent fire. Climate change is expected to influence moisture availability and it is unclear how drought conditions may interact with prescribed fire to influence management objectives associated with maintaining longleaf pine ecosystems. This study aimed to [...] Read more.
The longleaf pine ecosystem is dependent on frequent fire. Climate change is expected to influence moisture availability and it is unclear how drought conditions may interact with prescribed fire to influence management objectives associated with maintaining longleaf pine ecosystems. This study aimed to understand the impacts of drought, fire intensity and their interaction on P. palustris grass-stage seedlings. We used droughted and well-watered P. palustris seedlings burned at two different fire intensity levels at an indoor combustion facility. Needle fuel moisture content of burned seedlings was not different between droughted and well-watered groups. Mortality and resprouting only occurred at fire intensity levels exceeding 3.5 MJ m−2 in combination with drought that resulted in predawn water potentials more negative than −1.7 MPa. Our observations of minimal mortality after exposing P. palustris seedlings to a range of fire intensities in a burn lab contrast the higher mortality observed in field studies for the species. Compared to seedlings and saplings of Western US Pinus species, this study demonstrates that P. palustris is considerably more resistant to the combined effects of high surface fire intensity and drought. Full article
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19 pages, 49755 KiB  
Article
Fire Propagation Characteristics and Fire Risks of Polyurethanes: Effects of Material Type (Foam & Board) and Added Flame Retardant
by Ji Hun Choi, Seung Un Chae, Euy Hong Hwang and Don Mook Choi
Fire 2022, 5(4), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire5040105 - 20 Jul 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3228
Abstract
Polyurethane material is used as an interior finish and wall cavity insulation. Flame-retardant products may be used for ignition, flame diffusion, and heat-release blocking. A large-scale test was conducted to understand the flame propagation characteristics of polyurethane with the addition of a flame [...] Read more.
Polyurethane material is used as an interior finish and wall cavity insulation. Flame-retardant products may be used for ignition, flame diffusion, and heat-release blocking. A large-scale test was conducted to understand the flame propagation characteristics of polyurethane with the addition of a flame retardant. The fire propagation properties and fire risks of four commonly used polyurethane materials were examined using three tests. Specifically, ignition properties, flame propagation behavior, and flashover occurrence were probed using full-scale tests, while heat release and fire characteristics were examined using cone calorimeter tests, and the toxicity of gaseous combustion products was assessed using gas toxicity tests. PIR F and PIR B, which contained flame retardants, featured slow flame propagation and a long-lasting residual flame, and PIR F released HCl and Br2 on combustion. Full-scale tests revealed that although external flame propagation was always accompanied by flashover, irrespective of whether the flame retardant was present, a delay or blockage of energy transfer to the inside was observed for flame-retardant-containing specimens. Apart from checking the safety at the material level, the importance of identifying the actual fire characteristics through a full-scale test was confirmed. Full article
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19 pages, 4756 KiB  
Article
Impact of Vertical Atmospheric Structure on an Atypical Fire in a Mountain Valley
by Mitsuhiro Ozaki, Rebecca M. B. Harris, Peter T. Love, Jagannath Aryal, Paul Fox-Hughes and Grant J. Williamson
Fire 2022, 5(4), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire5040104 - 20 Jul 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2197
Abstract
Wildfires are not only a natural part of many ecosystems, but they can also have disastrous consequences for humans, including in Australia. Rugged terrain adds to the difficulty of predicting fire behavior and fire spread, as fires often propagate contrary to expectations. Even [...] Read more.
Wildfires are not only a natural part of many ecosystems, but they can also have disastrous consequences for humans, including in Australia. Rugged terrain adds to the difficulty of predicting fire behavior and fire spread, as fires often propagate contrary to expectations. Even though fire models generally incorporate weather, fuels, and topography, which are important factors affecting fire behavior, they usually only consider the surface wind; however, the more elevated winds should also be accounted for, in addition to surface winds, when predicting fire spread in rugged terrain because valley winds are often dynamically altered by the interaction of a layered atmosphere and the topography. Here, fire spread in rugged terrain was examined in a case study of the Riveaux Road Fire, which was ignited by multiple lightning strikes in January 2019 in southern Tasmania, Australia and burnt approximately 637.19 km2. Firstly, the number of conducive wind structures, which are defined as the combination of wind and temperature layers likely to result in enhanced surface wind, were counted by examining the vertical wind structure of the atmosphere, and the potential for above-surface winds to affect fire propagation was identified. Then, the multiple fire propagations were simulated using a new fire simulator (Prototype 2) motivated by the draft specification of the forthcoming new fire danger rating system, the Australian Fire Danger Rating System (AFDRS). Simulations were performed with one experiment group utilizing wind fields that included upper-air interactions, and two control groups that utilized downscaled wind from a model that only incorporated surface winds, to identify the impact of upper air interactions. Consequently, a detailed analysis showed that more conducive structures were commonly observed in the rugged terrain than in the other topography. In addition, the simulation of the experiment group performed better in predicting fire spread than those of the control groups in rugged terrain. In contrast, the control groups based on the downscaled surface wind model performed well in less rugged terrain. These results suggest that not only surface winds but also the higher altitude winds above the surface are required to be considered, especially in rugged terrain. Full article
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24 pages, 4405 KiB  
Article
The Application of Fire Behavior Modeling to Fuel Treatment Assessments at Army Garrison Camp Williams, Utah
by Scott M. Frost, Martin E. Alexander and Michael J. Jenkins
Fire 2022, 5(3), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire5030078 - 09 Jun 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3157
Abstract
Large wildfires (>40 ha in size) occur about every three years within Army Garrison Camp Williams, located near South Jordan, Utah, USA. In 2010 and 2012, wildfires originating on the practice firing range burned beyond the camp’s boundaries into the adjacent wildland-urban interface [...] Read more.
Large wildfires (>40 ha in size) occur about every three years within Army Garrison Camp Williams, located near South Jordan, Utah, USA. In 2010 and 2012, wildfires originating on the practice firing range burned beyond the camp’s boundaries into the adjacent wildland-urban interface areas. The political and public reaction to these escaped fires was intense. Fire researchers at Utah State University were asked if a spatially organized system of fuel treatments could be developed to prevent such incidents in the future. We used a combination of empirically based guidelines and semi-physical fire modeling systems, coupled with climatological data, to make assessments of fire behavior potential for the sagebrush steppe vegetation/fuel types found in AGCW, that also considered slope steepness. The results suggested the need for removal of woody vegetation within 20 m of firebreaks and a minimum firebreak width of 8.0 m in grassland fuels. In stands of juniper, a canopy coverage of 25% or less is recommended. In Gambel oak stands along the northern boundary of the installation, a fuelbreak width of 60 m for secondary breaks (used for segmenting large areas of fuels) and 90 m for primary breaks (used for protecting urban development and valuable natural resources) is recommended. Full article
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27 pages, 14073 KiB  
Article
Large-Scale Enclosure Fire Experiments Adopting CLT Slabs with Different Types of Polyurethane Adhesives: Genesis and Preliminary Findings
by Danny Hopkin, Wojciech Węgrzyński, Michael Spearpoint, Ian Fu, Harald Krenn, Tim Sleik, Carmen Gorska and Gordian Stapf
Fire 2022, 5(2), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire5020039 - 20 Mar 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 8550
Abstract
This paper provides understanding of the fire performance of exposed cross-laminated-timber (CLT) in large enclosures. An office-type configuration has been represented by a 3.75 by 7.6 by 2.4 m high enclosure constructed of non-combustible blockwork walls, with a large opening on one long [...] Read more.
This paper provides understanding of the fire performance of exposed cross-laminated-timber (CLT) in large enclosures. An office-type configuration has been represented by a 3.75 by 7.6 by 2.4 m high enclosure constructed of non-combustible blockwork walls, with a large opening on one long face. Three experiments are described in which propane-fuelled burners created a line fire that impinged on different ceiling types. The first experiment had a non-combustible ceiling lining in which the burners were set to provide flames that extended approximately halfway along the underside of the ceiling. Two further experiments used exposed 160 mm thick (40-20-40-20-40 mm) loaded CLT panels with a standard polyurethane adhesive between lamella in one experiment and a modified polyurethane adhesive in the other. Measurements included radiative heat flux to the ceiling and the floor, temperatures within the depth of the CLT and the mass loss of the panels. Results show the initial peak rate of heat release with the exposed CLT was up to three times greater when compared with the non-combustible lining. As char formed, this stabilised at approximately one and a half times that of the non-combustible lining. Premature char fall-off (due to bond-line failure) was observed close to the burners in the CLT using standard polyurethane adhesive. However, both exposed CLT ceiling experiments underwent auto-extinction of flaming combustion once the burners were switched off. Full article
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12 pages, 3460 KiB  
Communication
Numerical Simulation Analysis of Fire Hazard from Leakage and Diffusion of Vinyl Chloride in Different Atmospheric Environments
by Yuchuan Liu and Jian Wang
Fire 2022, 5(2), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire5020036 - 05 Mar 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4058
Abstract
In this paper, using the numerical simulation analysis software MATLAB and Fire Dynamics Simulation (FDS), the corresponding gas leakage diffusion model and turbulence leakage diffusion module were used to study the diffusion law and fire hazard of vinyl chloride monomer after leakage in [...] Read more.
In this paper, using the numerical simulation analysis software MATLAB and Fire Dynamics Simulation (FDS), the corresponding gas leakage diffusion model and turbulence leakage diffusion module were used to study the diffusion law and fire hazard of vinyl chloride monomer after leakage in different atmospheric environments. The concentration distribution results for vinyl chloride diffusion obtained by numerical simulation were compared and analyzed. The fire hazard area of leakage diffusion is defined by the hot fire concentration of vinyl chloride gas, and the influence of the gas-phase oxidation reaction of vinyl chloride on leakage diffusion is also discussed. The conclusion shows that as the atmospheric environment stabilizes, the peak concentration of vinyl chloride leakage and the diffusion area decrease correspondingly, the fire risk area gradually shrinks, the fire risk decreases, the affected area gradually expands, and the toxicity risk increases. When it is not in a stable state, the formaldehyde derived from the gas-phase oxidation reaction aggregates together with vinyl chloride to form a mixed gas cloud. Although the scope of influence is reduced, the concentration of harmful gases in the area is higher, and the fire risk of the mixed gas is increased. Full article
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15 pages, 4260 KiB  
Article
Study on Coupled Combustion Behavior of Two Parallel Line Fires
by Qiong Liu, Bing Du, Qiang Yan, Long Shi, Ming Li and Zhi Li
Fire 2022, 5(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire5010014 - 22 Jan 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3639
Abstract
In this study, the interaction of two parallel line fires with a length-width ratio of greater than 50 was investigated and compared to a single line fire. Considering different length–width ratios and spacings between the fire sources, experiments were carried out to analyze [...] Read more.
In this study, the interaction of two parallel line fires with a length-width ratio of greater than 50 was investigated and compared to a single line fire. Considering different length–width ratios and spacings between the fire sources, experiments were carried out to analyze the fire characteristics, such as the burning rate, the flame-merging state, the flame height, the flame tilt angle, and the flame length of the line fires. Its regularity was revealed by combining two mechanisms, namely, heat feedback enhancement and air entrainment restriction. The results revealed that the burning rate under different length–width ratios shows a uniform law, which increases first and then decreases with a greater spacing between the fire sources. There is a special relationship between the flame-merging probability Pm and the dimensionless characteristic parameters (S/ZC)/(L/d)0.27. Based on this relationship, a critical criterion of flame merging can be obtained as (S/ZC)/(L/d)0.27 = 2.38. In addition, the height and the length of the flame were studied to better describe the flame shape when the flame is tilted. Since the flame is bent, the flame length has an abrupt change at a specific position, and the inclination angle also has the same phenomenon. Finally, it was found that the influence of the length–width ratio on the line fires is relatively limited, which is further weakened under a greater length–width ratio. Full article
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14 pages, 2797 KiB  
Article
Early Fire Detection: A New Indoor Laboratory Dataset and Data Distribution Analysis
by Amril Nazir, Husam Mosleh, Maen Takruri, Abdul-Halim Jallad and Hamad Alhebsi
Fire 2022, 5(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire5010011 - 18 Jan 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 7269
Abstract
Fire alarm systems are typically equipped with various sensors such as heat, smoke, and gas detectors. These provide fire alerts and notifications of emergency exits when a fire has been detected. However, such systems do not give early warning in order to allow [...] Read more.
Fire alarm systems are typically equipped with various sensors such as heat, smoke, and gas detectors. These provide fire alerts and notifications of emergency exits when a fire has been detected. However, such systems do not give early warning in order to allow appropriate action to be taken when an alarm is first triggered, as the fire may have already caused severe damage. This paper analyzes a new dataset gathered from controlled realistic fire experiments conducted in an indoor laboratory environment. The experiments were conducted in a controlled manner by triggering the source of fire using electrical devices and charcoal on paperboard, cardboard or clothing. Important data such as humidity, temperature, MQ139, Total Volatile Organic Compounds (TVOC) and eCO2 were collected using sensor devices. These datasets will be extremely valuable to researchers in the machine learning and data science communities interested in pursuing novel advanced statistical and machine learning techniques and methods for developing early fire detection systems. The analysis of the collected data demonstrates the possibility of using eCO2 and TVOC reading levels for early detection of smoldering fires. The experimental setup was based on Low-Power Wireless Area Networks (LPWAN), which can be used to reliably deliver fire-related data over long ranges without depending on the status of a cellular or WiFi Network. Full article
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2021

Jump to: 2022

18 pages, 7888 KiB  
Article
Numerical Analysis of Smoke Behavior and Detection of Solid Combustible Fire Developed in Manned Exploration Module Based on Exploration Gravity
by Ter-Ki Hong and Seul-Hyun Park
Fire 2021, 4(4), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire4040085 - 19 Nov 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3266
Abstract
A fire during manned space exploration can cause serious casualties and disrupt the mission if the initial response is delayed. Therefore, measurement technology that can detect fire in the early stage of ignition is important. There have been a number of works that [...] Read more.
A fire during manned space exploration can cause serious casualties and disrupt the mission if the initial response is delayed. Therefore, measurement technology that can detect fire in the early stage of ignition is important. There have been a number of works that investigate the smoke behaviors in microgravity as the foundation for a reliable method for sensing a fire during spaceflight. For space missions to the outer planets, however, a strategy of detecting smoke as an indicator of fire should be adjusted to cover the fire scenario that can be greatly affected by changes in gravity (microgravity, lunar, Mars, and Earth gravity). Therefore, as a preliminary study on fire detectors of the manned pressurized module, the present study examined the smoke particle behavior and detection characteristics with respect to changes in gravity using numerical analysis. In particular, the effects of the combination of buoyancy and ventilation flow on the smoke particle movement pattern was investigated to further improve the understanding of the fire detection characteristics of the smoke detector, assuming that a fire occurred in different gravity environments inside the pressurized module. To this end, we modeled the internal shape of Destiny and performed a series of numerical analysis using the Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS). The findings of this study can provide basic data for the design of a fire detection system for manned space exploration modules. Full article
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25 pages, 49109 KiB  
Article
Numerical Analysis of Seismic Performances of Post-Fire Scoria Aggregate Concrete Beam-Column Joints
by Bin Cai, Wen-Li Hu and Feng Fu
Fire 2021, 4(4), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire4040070 - 14 Oct 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2657
Abstract
In order to analyze the post-fire seismic performances of scoria aggregate concrete (SAC) beam-column joints precisely and effectively, one finite element model (FEM) was developed to simulate the seismic behavior of SAC beam-column joints. The FEM consists of two sequential parts: firstly, the [...] Read more.
In order to analyze the post-fire seismic performances of scoria aggregate concrete (SAC) beam-column joints precisely and effectively, one finite element model (FEM) was developed to simulate the seismic behavior of SAC beam-column joints. The FEM consists of two sequential parts: firstly, the heat transfer analysis of the beam-column joints, and then the seismic analysis of the SAC joints by combining the temperature field distribution obtained from the heat transfer analysis with the mechanical properties of the SAC after fire, both of which were implemented in ABAQUS. In order to make the simulation results more accurate, spring elements were applied to simulate the bond–slip behavior with material degradation due to fire damage in the simulation of seismic analysis. Moreover, in order to validate the FEM, the seismic behavior of the natural aggregate concrete (NAC) beam-column joints after fire was simulated with the established FEM, and the simulation results were compared with the available test data. It is proved that the FEM we built was accurate and effective and provided efficient solutions for evaluating the seismic performance of post-fire beam-column joints so that the effects of various parameters, namely, fire time, longitudinal reinforcement ratio, and axial compression ratio on the seismic performance of SAC beam-column joints after fire were investigated in depth, which indicated the increase of axial compression ratio can improve the strength, initial stiffness, and energy dissipation capacity of SAC joints, while the increase of longitudinal reinforcement ratio can increase the strength and stiffness of SAC joints to a small extent, but too high reinforcement ratio will significantly weaken the energy dissipation capacity of SAC joints. Full article
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