Food Wastes: Feedstock for Value-Added Products: 4th Edition

A special issue of Fermentation (ISSN 2311-5637). This special issue belongs to the section "Fermentation for Food and Beverages".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 May 2023) | Viewed by 17473

Special Issue Editor

Biotechnology Laboratory, School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Interests: biochemical engineering; fermentation biotechnology; bioreactor design; valorization of agro-industrial wastes and food wastes for biofuels; kinetic modeling; halogenated hydrocarbons degradation; mass transfer phenomena; hydrolytic enzymes (purification, characterization); bio-scouring of cotton fabrics; growth of microalgae
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Food waste (FW) is a global problem that has received increasing public and political attention in recent years. This problem will only become more significant in the coming years, especially considering the increase in food demand due to the growing global population. Food is a precious commodity, and its production can be resource-intensive. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), food loss (FL) is defined as “the decrease in quantity or quality of food”. Food waste is part of food loss and refers to the discarding or alternative (non-food) use of food that is safe and nutritious for human consumption along the entire food supply chain, from primary production to end-household consumer level. The European Project FUSIONS defines FW as “any food, and inedible parts of food, removed from (lost to or diverted from) the food supply chain to be recovered or disposed of (including composted, crops plowed in/not harvested, anaerobic digestion, bio-energy production, co-generation, incineration, disposal to sewer, landfill or discarded to sea)”. According to the FAO, nearly 1.3 billion tons of food products per year are lost along the food supply chain, and in the next 25 years, the amount of food waste is projected to increase exponentially.

Currently, most food wastes are recycled, mainly as animal feed and compost. The remaining quantities are incinerated and disposed of in landfills, causing serious emissions of methane (CH4), which is 23-times more potent than carbon dioxide (CO2) as a greenhouse gas and significantly contributes to climate change. The social impacts of FL and FW may be ascribed with ethical and moral dimensions within the general concept of global food security. Economic impacts are due to the costs related to food wastage and their effects on farmers and consumer incomes.

The EU waste framework directive 2008/98/EC defines the EU waste management hierarchy as follows: (a) prevention, (b) preparing for reuse, (c) recycling, (d) other recovery (e.g., energy recovery), and (e) disposal. Similarly, the Environmental Protection Agency defines the following hierarchy in relation to FW management: (a) source reduction; (b) feeding hungry people; (c) feeding animals; (d) industrial uses; and (e) composting, incineration, or landfilling.

Preventing the overproduction and oversupply of food is the first step to be taken in reducing FW generation. FW is rich in a spectrum of organic components including carbohydrates, proteins, oils and fats, and organic acids. FW can be converted into a spectrum of bio-commodity chemicals and bioenergy by employing bioprocesses. The implementation of the biorefinery concept could be an essential part of the successful valorization of FW. Producing a spectrum of bio-based products, FW biorefinery can complement fossil-based refinery to a certain extent and address the major drivers for the bioeconomy, namely climate, resource security, and ecosystem services.

In continuation, this Special Issue compiles both recent innovative research results as well as review papers on food waste valorization for the production of value-added products.

Dr. Diomi Mamma
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Fermentation is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • food waste
  • circular economy
  • value-added products
  • bioeconomy
  • biorefinery
  • integrated bioprocesses
  • bioenergy
  • bio-hydrogen
  • biomethane
  • biohythane
  • biobased products
  • platform chemicals
  • biofuels
  • bioethanol
  • butanol
  • bio-diesel
  • microbial fuel cell (MFC)
  • enzymes
  • biopolymers
  • organic acids

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

19 pages, 4091 KiB  
Article
Production and Characterization of Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) from Halomonas boliviensis LC1 Cultivated in Hydrolysates of Quinoa Stalks
by Diego A. Miranda, Katherine Marín, Ola Sundman, Mattias Hedenström, Jorge Quillaguaman, András Gorzsás, Markus Broström, Markus Carlborg, Jenny Lundqvist, Luis Romero-Soto, Leif J. Jönsson, Cristhian Carrasco and Carlos Martín
Fermentation 2023, 9(6), 556; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation9060556 - 10 Jun 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2596
Abstract
The global production of fossil-based plastics has reached critical levels, and their substitution with bio-based polymers is an urgent requirement. Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) is a biopolymer that can be produced via microbial cultivation, but efficient microorganisms and low-cost substrates are required. Halomonas boliviensis LC1, [...] Read more.
The global production of fossil-based plastics has reached critical levels, and their substitution with bio-based polymers is an urgent requirement. Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) is a biopolymer that can be produced via microbial cultivation, but efficient microorganisms and low-cost substrates are required. Halomonas boliviensis LC1, a moderately halophilic bacterium, is an effective PHB producer, and hydrolysates of the residual stalks of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) can be considered a cheap source of sugars for microbial fermentation processes in quinoa-producing countries. In this study, H. boliviensis LC1 was adapted to a cellulosic hydrolysate of quinoa stalks obtained via acid-catalyzed hydrothermal pretreatment and enzymatic saccharification. The adapted strain was cultivated in hydrolysates and synthetic media, each of them with two different initial concentrations of glucose. Cell growth, glucose consumption, and PHB formation during cultivation were assessed. The cultivation results showed an initial lag in microbial growth and glucose consumption in the quinoa hydrolysates compared to cultivation in synthetic medium, but after 33 h, the values were comparable for all media. Cultivation in hydrolysates with an initial glucose concentration of 15 g/L resulted in a higher glucose consumption rate (0.15 g/(L h) vs. 0.14 g/(L h)) and volumetric productivity of PHB (14.02 mg/(L h) vs. 10.89 mg/(L h)) than cultivation in hydrolysates with 20 g/L as the initial glucose concentration. During most of the cultivation time, the PHB yield on initial glucose was higher for cultivation in synthetic medium than in hydrolysates. The produced PHBs were characterized using advanced analytical techniques, such as high-performance size-exclusion chromatography (HPSEC), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). HPSEC revealed that the molecular weight of PHB produced in the cellulosic hydrolysate was lower than that of PHB produced in synthetic medium. TGA showed higher thermal stability for PHB produced in synthetic medium than for that produced in the hydrolysate. The results of the other characterization techniques displayed comparable features for both PHB samples. The presented results show the feasibility of producing PHB from quinoa stalks with H. boliviensis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Wastes: Feedstock for Value-Added Products: 4th Edition)
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23 pages, 10361 KiB  
Article
Products and Properties of Components from Heat-Denatured Peanut Meal Following Solid-State Fermentation by Aspergillus oryzae and Saccharomyces cerevisiae
by Lina Yu, Jie Bi, Yu Song, Chen Jiang, Hongtao Qi, Xiaoyuan Chi, Weiqiang Yang, Chengren Shi, Qingxuan Gong and Mingqing Wang
Fermentation 2023, 9(5), 425; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation9050425 - 28 Apr 2023
Viewed by 1152
Abstract
In heat-denatured peanut meal (HDPM), proteins are denatured and polysaccharides are degraded and browned. It can only be used as feed or fertilizer, and not using it as such is a waste of resources. To achieve high-value HDPM use, solid-state fermentation by Aspergillus [...] Read more.
In heat-denatured peanut meal (HDPM), proteins are denatured and polysaccharides are degraded and browned. It can only be used as feed or fertilizer, and not using it as such is a waste of resources. To achieve high-value HDPM use, solid-state fermentation by Aspergillus oryzae and Saccharomyces cerevisiae was investigated. Conditions were optimized by response surface methodology and high-value antioxidant peptides (APs), nonstarch polysaccharides (NSPs), and fermentation products of heat-denatured peanut meal (FHDPM) were obtained. Optimal culture conditions were strain ratio 6:5, inoculation volume 2 mL, and fermentation for 42 h at 35 °C. Under optimal conditions, the theoretical soluble nitrogen concentration, 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging rate, hydroxyl free radical scavenging rate, and NSP yield reached 44.78 mg/mL, 62.44%, 94.95%, and 3.73%, respectively; however, their experimental values were 46.80 ± 1.23 mg/mL, 72.18 ± 0.78%, 96.79 ± 0.55%, and 4.42 ± 0.21%, respectively. NSPs, Aps, and FHDPM exhibited four higher classes and eight types of antioxidant activities. Moreover, levels of amino acids and trace elements, and physicochemical properties including emulsion activity index, emulsion stability index, foam capacity, foam stability, water holding capacity, and oil absorption capacity were enhanced by fermentation. The results indicate that APs and NSPs could serve as promising natural antioxidants in the food industry, and FHDPM could be used as a new type of high-value nutritional product in the feed industry. The findings provide new insight for comprehensive processing and utilization of HDPM. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Wastes: Feedstock for Value-Added Products: 4th Edition)
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12 pages, 2142 KiB  
Article
Influence of Lactobacillus (LAB) Fermentation on the Enhancement of Branched Chain Amino Acids and Antioxidant Properties in Bran among Wheat By-Products
by Thinzar Aung, Seung-Soo Park and Mi-Jeong Kim
Fermentation 2022, 8(12), 732; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation8120732 - 12 Dec 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1533
Abstract
The main objective of this study was to enhance the nutritional properties, including branched chain amino acids (BCAAs), through the solid-state fermentation (SSF) of wheat bran (WB) using lactic acid bacteria (LAB). The physicochemical properties, amino acid profiles, bioactive components, and antioxidant properties [...] Read more.
The main objective of this study was to enhance the nutritional properties, including branched chain amino acids (BCAAs), through the solid-state fermentation (SSF) of wheat bran (WB) using lactic acid bacteria (LAB). The physicochemical properties, amino acid profiles, bioactive components, and antioxidant properties of raw and sterilized WB were compared with those of WB fermented with five different LAB strains. The highest level of BCAAs, isoleucine (Ile; 2.557 ± 0.05 mg/100 g), leucine (Leu; 7.703 ± 0.40 mg/100 g), and valine (Val; 7.207 ± 0.37 mg/100 g), was displayed in the WB fermented with Lactobacillus acidophilus (L.A WB). In addition, L.A WB showed the highest amount of total phenolic and flavonoid contents (2.80 mg GAE/g and 1.01 mg CE/g, respectively), and the highest Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (9.88 mM TE/g). Statistical analysis clearly revealed that L.A WB presented the highest abundance of branched chain amino acids as well as bioactive components. Overall, this study distinctly implemented the possibility of fermented WB with enhanced BCAAs for application in future functional food through experimental and statistical observations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Wastes: Feedstock for Value-Added Products: 4th Edition)
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15 pages, 4595 KiB  
Article
Fermentation as a Promising Tool to Valorize Rice-Milling Waste into Bio-Products Active against Root-Rot-Associated Pathogens for Improved Horticultural Plant Growth
by Ruta Vaitkeviciene, Natalija Burbulis, Ramune Masiene, Renata Zvirdauskiene, Valdas Jakstas, Jonas Damasius and Daiva Zadeike
Fermentation 2022, 8(12), 716; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation8120716 - 08 Dec 2022
Viewed by 1326
Abstract
In this study, water extracts from fermented (F), ultrasonicated (US), and enzyme-hydrolyzed (E) rice bran (RB) were evaluated against sixteen fungal plant stem and root-rot-associated pathogens. The effects of pre-treated RB additives on plant growth substrate (PGS) on bean and tomato seed germination, [...] Read more.
In this study, water extracts from fermented (F), ultrasonicated (US), and enzyme-hydrolyzed (E) rice bran (RB) were evaluated against sixteen fungal plant stem and root-rot-associated pathogens. The effects of pre-treated RB additives on plant growth substrate (PGS) on bean and tomato seed germination, stem height and root length of seedlings, and chlorophyll concentration in plants were analyzed. The results showed that US-assisted pre-treatments did not affect protein content in RB, while 36 h semi-solid fermentation (SSF) reduced protein content by 10.3–14.8%. US initiated a 2.9- and 2-fold increase in total sugar and total phenolics (TPC) contents compared to the untreated RB (3.89 g/100 g dw and 0.61 mg GAE/g dw, respectively). Lactic acid (19.66–23.42 g/100 g dw), acetic acid (10.54–14.24 g/100g dw), propionic acid (0.40–1.72 g/100 g dw), phenolic compounds (0.82–1.04 mg GAE/g dw), among which phenolic acids, such as p-coumaric, cinnamic, sinapic, vanillic, and ferulic, were detected in the fermented RB. The RBF extracts showed the greatest growth-inhibition effect against soil-born plant pathogens, such as Fusarium, Pythium, Sclerotinia, Aspergillus, Pseudomonas, and Verticillium. Beans and tomatoes grown in RBUS+E- and RBF-supplemented PGS increased the germination rate (14–75%), root length (21–44%), and stem height (25–47%) compared to seedlings grown in PGS. The RB additives increased up to 44.6–48.8% of the chlorophyll content in both plants grown under greenhouse conditions. The results indicate that the biological potential of rice-milling waste as a plant-growth-promoting substrate component can be enhanced using solid-state fermentation with antimicrobial LABs and US processing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Wastes: Feedstock for Value-Added Products: 4th Edition)
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17 pages, 2135 KiB  
Article
Use of Yarrowia lipolytica to Obtain Fish Waste Functional Hydrolysates Rich in Flavoring Compounds
by Davide Gottardi, Marianna Ciccone, Lorenzo Siroli, Rosalba Lanciotti and Francesca Patrignani
Fermentation 2022, 8(12), 708; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation8120708 - 04 Dec 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2124
Abstract
Fishery processing industries generate large amounts of by-products. These by-products come from fish heads, skin, bones, thorns, and viscera. The disposal of these wastes represents an increasing environmental and health problem. Nowadays, there is a growing interest in how to utilize fish materials [...] Read more.
Fishery processing industries generate large amounts of by-products. These by-products come from fish heads, skin, bones, thorns, and viscera. The disposal of these wastes represents an increasing environmental and health problem. Nowadays, there is a growing interest in how to utilize fish materials that are not used for human consumption. Among the different solutions proposed, the use of proteolytic and lipolytic microorganisms represents a green solution for waste valorization. In this work, first we screened several conventional and non-conventional microorganisms for their proteolytic and lipolytic functions. Then, the most promising strains (Yarrowia lipolytica YL2, Y. lipolytica YL4, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens B5M and B. subtilis B5C) were tested on a fish waste-based solution. After 72 h incubation at room temperature, the supernatants obtained using the strains of Y. lipolytica showed the highest degree of hydrolysis (10.03 and 11.80%, respectively, for YL2 and YL4), the strongest antioxidant activity (86.4% in DPPH assay for YL2) and the highest formation of aldehydes (above 50% of the total volatile compounds detected). Hydrolysates of fish waste obtained with Y. lipolytica may be reused in feed and food formulations for their functional and flavoring characteristics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Wastes: Feedstock for Value-Added Products: 4th Edition)
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20 pages, 1446 KiB  
Article
Ensiled Mixed Vegetables Enriched Carbohydrate Metabolism in Heterofermentative Lactic Acid Bacteria
by Daniel L. Forwood, Devin B. Holman, Sarah J. Meale and Alex V. Chaves
Fermentation 2022, 8(12), 699; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation8120699 - 02 Dec 2022
Viewed by 1453
Abstract
This study evaluated the fermentation quality, nutritive profile, in vitro fermentation, and microbial communities colonising sorghum ensiled with an unsalable vegetable mixture (chopped beans, carrot, and onion (1:1:1) ) including: (1)−100% sorghum; (2)−80% sorghum + 20% vegetable mix or (3)−60% sorghum + 40% [...] Read more.
This study evaluated the fermentation quality, nutritive profile, in vitro fermentation, and microbial communities colonising sorghum ensiled with an unsalable vegetable mixture (chopped beans, carrot, and onion (1:1:1) ) including: (1)−100% sorghum; (2)−80% sorghum + 20% vegetable mix or (3)−60% sorghum + 40% vegetable mix, on a dry matter (DM) basis, with or without a probiotic inoculant. Samples were obtained across 0, 1, 3, 5,7, and 101 days ensiling and after 14 d aerobic exposure. The V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene and the ITS1 region were sequenced to profile bacterial, archaeal, and fungal communities. Compared to the 0% DM, ethanol increased (p < 0.01) from 8.42 to 20.4 ± 1.32 mM with 40% DM vegetable mix inclusion, while lactate decreased from 5.93 to 2.24 ± 0.26 mM. Linear discriminant analysis revealed that relative abundances of 12 bacterial taxa were influenced by silage treatments (log LDA score ≥ 4.02; p ≤ 0.03), while predicted functional pathways of alternative carbohydrate metabolism (hexitol, sulfoquinovose and glycerol degradation; N-acetyl glucosamine biosynthesis; log LDA score ≥ 2.04; p ≤ 0.02) were similarly enriched. This study indicated that carbohydrate metabolism by heterofermentative lactic acid bacteria can increase the feed value of sorghum when ensiled with an unsalable vegetable mixture at 40%DM, without requiring a high quantity of lactate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Wastes: Feedstock for Value-Added Products: 4th Edition)
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12 pages, 1537 KiB  
Article
Valorization of Cheese Whey as a Feedstock for Production of Cyclosporin A by Tolypocladium inflatum
by Hyeong Ryeol Kim, Kang Hyun Lee, Youngsang Chun, Soo Kweon Lee, Ju Hun Lee, Seung Wook Kim and Hah Young Yoo
Fermentation 2022, 8(12), 670; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation8120670 - 23 Nov 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1566
Abstract
Food waste-based biorefineries are considered an essential concept for the implementation of a sustainable circular economy. In this study, cheese whey powder (CWP), a dairy industry waste, was utilized to produce cyclosporin A (CsA). As it is difficult to valorize CWP because its [...] Read more.
Food waste-based biorefineries are considered an essential concept for the implementation of a sustainable circular economy. In this study, cheese whey powder (CWP), a dairy industry waste, was utilized to produce cyclosporin A (CsA). As it is difficult to valorize CWP because its components vary depending on the origin, a process for sugar conversion via acid hydrolysis was designed to obtain reproducible results using refined whey powder (WP) of a consistent quality. Acid hydrolysis was carried out using 2% (w/w) HCl and biomass loading of 50 g/L at 121 °C for 20 min. CWP hydrolysates were utilized to ferment Tolypocladium inflatum ATCC 34921. CsA production was found to be 51.3 mg/L at 12 days, a 1.4-fold increase compared to the control (commercial glucose, 36.3 mg/L). Our results showed that 100 g CWP can be converted to 81.8 mg of CsA. This finding demonstrated that CWP can be used as a sustainable feedstock for biorefineries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Wastes: Feedstock for Value-Added Products: 4th Edition)
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14 pages, 4651 KiB  
Article
Sustainable Production and Characteristics of Dried Fermented Vegetables
by Emilia Janiszewska-Turak, Katarzyna Rybak, Katarzyna Pobiega, Anna Nikodem and Anna Gramza-Michałowska
Fermentation 2022, 8(11), 659; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation8110659 - 21 Nov 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2365
Abstract
The current fashion for healthy food and the increasing number of people with lactose intolerance make fermented vegetables increasingly important. On top of this, surpluses unused in the vegetable harvest can become a potential source of “green waste”. The use of fermentation and [...] Read more.
The current fashion for healthy food and the increasing number of people with lactose intolerance make fermented vegetables increasingly important. On top of this, surpluses unused in the vegetable harvest can become a potential source of “green waste”. The use of fermentation and freeze-drying can result in a valuable, sustainable product that can solve the problems of spoiled vegetables and the need for refrigerated storage. Therefore, this study aimed to obtain sustainable dried fermented vegetables and to compare their selected physical and structural properties. Beetroot, carrot, and red pepper were selected for this purpose. These vegetables were subjected to a spontaneous lactic fermentation process. After the process, the vegetables were freeze-dried, and their structure and selected properties (color, dry weight, and the number of lactic acid bacteria) were determined. Fermented vegetables were found to differ from their raw sources in structure and color, the main discrepancies being shown by the b* factor (yellow-blue). Root vegetables had smaller pores of structure in the freeze-dried samples than red peppers. The freeze-drying process did not affect the number of bacteria. It can be concluded that both the fermentation and the freeze-drying processes affected the structure of the selected vegetables. All tested vegetables can be fermented and freeze-dried without major changes in color and microbiological properties and can be used as a potential source of lactic acid bacteria and health-promoting pigments, e.g., in the form of chips. In addition, their shelf life is extended. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Wastes: Feedstock for Value-Added Products: 4th Edition)
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23 pages, 2133 KiB  
Article
Thorough Investigation of the Effects of Cultivation Factors on Polyhydroalkanoates (PHAs) Production by Cupriavidus necator from Food Waste-Derived Volatile Fatty Acids
by Danh H. Vu, Amir Mahboubi, Andrew Root, Ivo Heinmaa, Mohammad J. Taherzadeh and Dan Åkesson
Fermentation 2022, 8(11), 605; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation8110605 - 04 Nov 2022
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2355
Abstract
Volatile fatty acids (VFAs) have become promising candidates for replacing the conventional expensive carbon sources used to produce polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs). Considering the inhibitory effect of VFAs at high concentrations and the influence of VFA mixture composition on bacterial growth and PHA production, a [...] Read more.
Volatile fatty acids (VFAs) have become promising candidates for replacing the conventional expensive carbon sources used to produce polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs). Considering the inhibitory effect of VFAs at high concentrations and the influence of VFA mixture composition on bacterial growth and PHA production, a thorough investigation of different cultivation parameters such as VFA concentrations and composition (synthetic and waste-derived VFAs) media, pH, aeration, C/N ratio, and type of nitrogen sources was conducted. Besides common VFAs of acetic, butyric and propionic acids, Cupriavidus necator showed good capability for assimilating longer-chained carboxylate compounds of valeric, isovaleric, isobutyric and caproic acids in feasible concentrations of 2.5–5 g/L. A combination of pH control at 7.0, C/N of 6, and aeration of 1 vvm was found to be the optimal condition for the bacterial growth, yielding a maximum PHA accumulation and PHA yield on biomass of 1.5 g/L and 56%, respectively, regardless of the nitrogen sources. The accumulated PHA was found to be poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) with the percentage of hydroxybutyrate in the range 91–96%. Any limitation in the cultivation factors was found to enhance the PHA yield, the promotion of which was a consequence of the reduction in biomass production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Wastes: Feedstock for Value-Added Products: 4th Edition)
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