Research

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26 pages, 5952 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Equipment- and Time-Constrained Data Acquisition Protocol for Non-Intrusive Appliance Load Monitoring

by Konstantinos Koasidis, Vangelis Marinakis, Haris Doukas, Nikolaos Doumouras, Anastasios Karamaneas and Alexandros Nikas

Energies 2023, 16(21), 7315; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16217315 - 28 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1056

Abstract

Energy behaviours will play a key role in decarbonising the building sector but require the provision of tailored insights to assist occupants to reduce their energy use. Energy disaggregation has been proposed to provide such information on the appliance level without needing a [...] Read more.

Energy behaviours will play a key role in decarbonising the building sector but require the provision of tailored insights to assist occupants to reduce their energy use. Energy disaggregation has been proposed to provide such information on the appliance level without needing a smart meter plugged in to each load. However, the use of public datasets with pre-collected data employed for energy disaggregation is associated with limitations regarding its compatibility with random households, while gathering data on the ground still requires extensive, and hitherto under-deployed, equipment and time commitments. Going beyond these two approaches, here, we propose a novel data acquisition protocol based on multiplexing appliances’ signals to create an artificial database for energy disaggregation implementations tailored to each household and dedicated to performing under conditions of time and equipment constraints, requiring that only one smart meter be used and for less than a day. In a case study of a Greek household, we train and compare four common algorithms based on the data gathered through this protocol and perform two tests: an out-of-sample test in the artificially multiplexed signal, and an external test to predict the household’s appliances’ operation based on the time series of a real total consumption signal. We find accurate monitoring of the operation and the power consumption level of high-power appliances, while in low-power appliances the operation is still found to be followed accurately but is also associated with some incorrect triggers. These insights attest to the efficacy of the protocol and its ability to produce meaningful tips for changing energy behaviours even under constraints, while in said conditions, we also find that long short-term memory neural networks consistently outperform all other algorithms, with decision trees closely following. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency of the Buildings II)

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20 pages, 6709 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Regression Models and Shape Descriptors for Building Energy Demand and Comfort Estimation

by Tamás Storcz, Géza Várady, István Kistelegdi and Zsolt Ercsey

Energies 2023, 16(16), 5896; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16165896 - 09 Aug 2023

Viewed by 761

Abstract

Optimal building design in terms of comfort and energy performance means designing and constructing a building that requires the minimum energy demand under the given conditions while also providing a good level of human comfort. This paper focuses on replacing the complex energy [...] Read more.

Optimal building design in terms of comfort and energy performance means designing and constructing a building that requires the minimum energy demand under the given conditions while also providing a good level of human comfort. This paper focuses on replacing the complex energy and comfort simulation procedure with fast regression model-based processes that encounter the building shape as input. Numerous building shape descriptors were applied as inputs to several regression models. After evaluating the results, it can be stated that, with careful selection of building geometry describing design input variables, complex energy and comfort simulations can be approximated. Six different models with five different building shape descriptors were tested. The worst results were around R² = 0.75, and the generic results were around R² = 0.92. The most accurate prediction models, with the highest level of accuracy (R² > 0.97), were linear regressions using 3rd power and dense neural networks using 1st power of inputs; furthermore, averages of mean absolute percentage errors are 1% in the case of dense neural networks. For the best performance, the building configuration was described by a discrete functional point cloud. The proposed method can effectively aid future building energy and comfort optimization processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency of the Buildings II)

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23 pages, 33517 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Street Lighting Level on Floodlights

by Henryk Wachta, Krzysztof Baran and Sebastian Różowicz

Energies 2023, 16(15), 5726; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16155726 - 31 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 638

Abstract

The article presents selected results of research related to the use of outdoor lighting, mainly street lighting, in the design of facility illumination. The indicated subject matter primarily concerns architectural structures that are located in urbanized city spaces and in the strict centers [...] Read more.

The article presents selected results of research related to the use of outdoor lighting, mainly street lighting, in the design of facility illumination. The indicated subject matter primarily concerns architectural structures that are located in urbanized city spaces and in the strict centers of old cities. It is in these areas that there is usually a significant saturation of historic secular and sacred buildings with significant tourist values. At the same time, the immediate surroundings of the structures are usually wrapped by a dense network of street lighting infrastructure. This illumination can be a major setback in the process of illumination planning. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account the extent of this impact on the planned illumination work, related to the selection, mounting, and direction of illumination equipment. This is related to the distance of the street luminaires from the facade, the height of their installation, the distance of the poles from each other, the power of the street luminaires, and the luminous flux distribution of the luminaires used. The purpose of the work undertaken was to analyze the extent to which outdoor lighting influences the planned illumination of an architectural structure and to explore the possibility of its potential use as a component of illumination. Analytical work was conducted at two levels of detail using advanced graphical computer applications. After general considerations and the derivation of conclusions, an example of illumination of a large sacral building was realized successfully using the element of street lighting as a component of illumination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency of the Buildings II)

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22 pages, 1289 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

An Exploratory Study on Swedish Stakeholders’ Experiences with Positive Energy Districts

by Moa Mattsson, Thomas Olofsson, Liv Lundberg, Olga Korda and Gireesh Nair

Energies 2023, 16(12), 4790; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16124790 - 19 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 925

Abstract

Positive energy district (PED) is a novel idea aimed to have an annual surplus of renewable energy and net zero greenhouse gas emissions within an area. However, it is still an ambiguous concept, which might be due to the complexity of city district [...] Read more.

Positive energy district (PED) is a novel idea aimed to have an annual surplus of renewable energy and net zero greenhouse gas emissions within an area. However, it is still an ambiguous concept, which might be due to the complexity of city district projects with interconnected infrastructures and numerous stakeholders involved. This study discusses various aspects of PED implementation and presents practitioners’ experiences with the PED concept, challenges, and facilitators they have faced with real projects. The study is based on interviews with ten Swedish professionals. The major challenges reported for PED implementation were local energy production and energy flexibility, sub-optimization, legislation, suitable system boundaries, and involvement of stakeholders. Most of the interviewees mentioned improved collaboration, integrated innovative technology, political support, and climate change mitigation goals as important facilitators. The interviewees highlighted the importance of a local perspective and considered each city’s preconditions when developing a PED project. The study emphasizes that to facilitate PED implementation and replication in cities, more knowledge and clarity is required about PED such as on the definition and system boundaries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency of the Buildings II)

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16 pages, 5137 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Efficiency Enhancement of the Single Line Multi-Stage Gasification of Hungarian Low-Rank Coal: Effects of Gasification Temperature and Steam/Carbon (S/C) Ratio

by Thuan Duc Mai, Tamás Koós, Emese Sebe, Zoltán Siménfalvi and András Arnold Kállay

Energies 2023, 16(11), 4427; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16114427 - 30 May 2023

Viewed by 1138

Abstract

Coal gasification is considered a promising solution for the production of synthetic fuels and eventually as a fuel for combined heat and power systems and heating buildings. There are several factors that affect the gasification efficiency and syngas quality, such as gasification parameters [...] Read more.

Coal gasification is considered a promising solution for the production of synthetic fuels and eventually as a fuel for combined heat and power systems and heating buildings. There are several factors that affect the gasification efficiency and syngas quality, such as gasification parameters (temperature, pressure, etc.), reactants and their ratio, utilisation of catalysts, and gasifier design. The multi-stage gasifier is known as a promising approach in the enhancement of process efficiency, as well as the syngas quality. In this study, the Hungarian brown coal was gasified in a two-stage gasifier. The pyrolysis stage was kept at 600 °C. The gasification stage was conducted at 700, 800, and 900 °C. The steam per carbon (S/C) ratio was examined at 0.75, 1.00, and 1.25. The positive effects of increasing gasification temperature on char and dry gas yield were obviously shown at all S/C ratios. The increase in the S/C ratio did not show a positive effect at all temperature conditions, especially at 700 and 900 °C. The highest dry syngas yield was 1.14 Nm³/kg_coal obtained at 900 °C and the S/C ratio of 1.25. The increase in the gasification temperature also had a significant impact on the volume fraction of CO and CO₂. Meanwhile, the syngas concentration varied slightly when the S/C ratio increased from 0.75 to 1.25. From a chemical utilization point of view, the gasification temperature at 900 °C and the S/C ratio of 1.25 resulted in the most promising H₂/CO ratio of 1.99. In addition, the highest carbon conversion and cold gas efficiency were achieved at 900 °C and an S/C ratio of 1.00–1.25, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency of the Buildings II)

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20 pages, 3061 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing the Energy Efficiency—COP of the Heat Pump Heating System by Energy Optimization and a Case Study

by Arpad Nyers and Jozsef Nyers

Energies 2023, 16(7), 2981; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16072981 - 24 Mar 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1264

Abstract

This article deals with the degrees of freedom and possible optimums, specifically with the energy optimums of the heat pump heating system. The authors developed an multi objective optimization procedure that allows for the determination of the optimal motor power for the circulation [...] Read more.

This article deals with the degrees of freedom and possible optimums, specifically with the energy optimums of the heat pump heating system. The authors developed an multi objective optimization procedure that allows for the determination of the optimal motor power for the circulation and well pumps in order to achieve the maximum

C O P

. Upon selecting the type and size of the water-to-water heat pump, based on the heating demand of the buildings, the proper power of the circulation and well pumps must be determined. There are several procedures used for determining the pump’s power. However, none of those methods ensures the optimum power, i.e., the maximum coefficient of performance,

C O P

of the heating system. In this study, a multi objective analytical-numerical dimensioning procedure was developed for the determination of the optimal mass flow rate of warm and well water. Based on the flow rate values, the optimum power of the circulation and well pumps can be calculated. Due to the wide scope of the topic, the application of the optimization procedure is presented in a case study, but only for determining the optimum power of the circulation pump. The validity of the procedure was confirmed by measurements. The results obtained with the optimization showed that through the energy optimization of the circulation pump power, the

C O P

of the system increased by 5.34%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency of the Buildings II)

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21 pages, 10009 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Development and Verification of Novel Building Integrated Thermal Storage System Models

by Matthias Pazold, Jan Radon, Matthias Kersken, Hartwig Künzel, Florian Antretter and Herbert Sinnesbichler

Energies 2023, 16(6), 2889; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16062889 - 21 Mar 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1292

Abstract

In electrical grids with a high renewable percentage, weather conditions have a greater impact on power generation. This can lead to the overproduction of electricity during periods of substantial wind power generation, resulting in shutoffs of wind turbines. To reduce such shutoffs and [...] Read more.

In electrical grids with a high renewable percentage, weather conditions have a greater impact on power generation. This can lead to the overproduction of electricity during periods of substantial wind power generation, resulting in shutoffs of wind turbines. To reduce such shutoffs and to bridge periods of lower electricity production, three thermal energy storage systems (TESs) have been developed for space heating and domestic hot water. These include a water-based thermal system (WBTS), a thermally activated building system (TABS), and a high-temperature stone storage system (HTSS). The paper explains the development of computer models used to simulate the systems and their successful verification using field measurements. Target values to cover about 90% of building heating demand with excess electricity were found to be achievable, with performance ratios depending on storage size, particularly for WBTS and HTSS. The TABS’ storage capacity is limited by building geometry and the available inner ceilings and walls. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency of the Buildings II)

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18 pages, 5287 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Home Energy Management System Based on Genetic Algorithm for Load Scheduling: A Case Study Based on Real Life Consumption Data

by Reda El Makroum, Ahmed Khallaayoun, Rachid Lghoul, Kedar Mehta and Wilfried Zörner

Energies 2023, 16(6), 2698; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16062698 - 14 Mar 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1724

Abstract

This paper proposes a home energy management system able to achieve optimized load scheduling for the operation of appliances within a given household. The system, based on the genetic algorithm, provides recommendations for the user to improve the way the energy needs of [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a home energy management system able to achieve optimized load scheduling for the operation of appliances within a given household. The system, based on the genetic algorithm, provides recommendations for the user to improve the way the energy needs of the home are handled. These recommendations not only take into account the dynamic pricing of electricity, but also the optimization for solar energy usage as well as user comfort. Historical data regarding the times at which the appliances have been used is leveraged through a statistical method to integrate the user’s preference into the algorithm. Based on real life appliance consumption data collected from a household in Morocco, three scenarios are established to assess the performance of the proposed system with each scenario having different parameters. Running the scenarios on the developed MATLAB script shows a cost saving of up to 63.48% as compared to a base scenario for a specific day. These results demonstrate that significant cost saving can be achieved while maintaining user comfort. The addition of supplementary shiftable loads (i.e., an electric vehicle) to the household as well as the limitations of such home energy management systems are discussed. The main contribution of this paper is the real data and including the user comfort as a metric in in the home energy management scheme. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency of the Buildings II)

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Review

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23 pages, 5045 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Enhancing Energy Efficiency and Building Performance through BEMS-BIM Integration

by Maria Kozlovska, Stefan Petkanic, Frantisek Vranay and Dominik Vranay

Energies 2023, 16(17), 6327; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16176327 - 31 Aug 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2602

Abstract

This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of the potential benefits and feasibility of integrating Building Energy Management Systems (BEMSs) with Building Information Modeling (BIM) in, but not limited to, the construction and building management sectors. By examining advantages, challenges, and real-world case studies, [...] Read more.

This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of the potential benefits and feasibility of integrating Building Energy Management Systems (BEMSs) with Building Information Modeling (BIM) in, but not limited to, the construction and building management sectors. By examining advantages, challenges, and real-world case studies, this study offers valuable insights into the impact of BEMS-BIM integration on building operations. The research methodology includes a literature review and bibliometric analysis to understand the subject domain and identify prevalent keywords. Additionally, case studies demonstrate the effectiveness of BEMS-BIM integration in real-world scenarios. This study investigates the possibilities and challenges of BIM to the BEMS methodology for energy-efficient industrial buildings, emphasizing the importance of addressing uncertainties and enhancing software interoperability. This research highlights the potential of BEMS-BIM integration to revolutionize building performance, enhance sustainability, and contribute to a greener and more efficient future for the construction and building management industries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency of the Buildings II)

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30 pages, 2522 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Comprehensive Review and Analysis of Glazing Systems towards Nearly Zero-Energy Buildings: Energy Performance, Thermal Comfort, Cost-Effectiveness, and Environmental Impact Perspectives

by Saman Abolghasemi Moghaddam, Catarina Serra, Manuel Gameiro da Silva and Nuno Simões

Energies 2023, 16(17), 6283; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16176283 - 29 Aug 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1505

Abstract

The global interest in nearly zero-energy buildings (NZEBs) has led to their establishment as mandatory building objectives in Europe for all new constructions starting in 2021. The principles outlined in the Energy Performance of Building Directive (EPBD) emphasize the significance of reducing energy [...] Read more.

The global interest in nearly zero-energy buildings (NZEBs) has led to their establishment as mandatory building objectives in Europe for all new constructions starting in 2021. The principles outlined in the Energy Performance of Building Directive (EPBD) emphasize the significance of reducing energy demand through various energy efficiency measures to achieve NZEB status. Among these measures, the utilization of high-performance glazing systems plays a crucial role in ensuring natural light, ventilation, favorable solar gain, aesthetics, and positive psychological effects in buildings, while maintaining high energy performance and thermal comfort without burdening the budget or harming the environment. The use of increasingly larger glazing areas makes this topic of great relevance. Nevertheless, numerous studies frequently overlook certain crucial aspects of glazing systems in their assessments. This review study aims to assess different glazing solutions based on four critical perspectives called “EThCE”: Energy performance, thermal comfort, cost-effectiveness, and environmental impact, considering their interrelationships. Furthermore, the importance of adopting a comprehensive approach for selecting the optimal glazing solution for NZEBs is discussed. Additionally, the relationship between glazing systems and climate change is taken into account. Ultimately, the authors propose a comprehensive approach, including all the influential factors, to assist designers and homeowners in making informed decisions regarding glazing system selection for new NZEBs or NZEB retrofits in different situations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency of the Buildings II)

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35 pages, 3476 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Practical Review to Support the Implementation of Smart Solutions within Neighbourhood Building Stock

by Simone Ferrari, Milad Zoghi, Giancarlo Paganin and Giuliano Dall’O’

Energies 2023, 16(15), 5701; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16155701 - 30 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1816

Abstract

The construction industry has witnessed an increase in the use of digital tools and smart solutions, particularly in the realm of building energy automation. While realising the potential benefits of smart cities, a broader scope of smart initiatives is required to support the [...] Read more.

The construction industry has witnessed an increase in the use of digital tools and smart solutions, particularly in the realm of building energy automation. While realising the potential benefits of smart cities, a broader scope of smart initiatives is required to support the transition from smart buildings towards smart neighbourhoods, which are considered critical urban development units. To support the interplay of smart solutions between buildings and neighbourhoods, this study aimed to collect and review all the smart solutions presented in existing scientific articles, the technical literature, and realised European projects. These solutions were classified into two main sections, buildings and neighbourhoods, which were investigated through five domains: building-energy-related uses, renewable energy sources, water, waste, and open space management. The quantitative outcomes demonstrated the potential benefits of implementing smart solutions in areas ranging from buildings to neighbourhoods. Moreover, this research concluded that the true enhancement of energy conservation goes beyond the building’s energy components and can be genuinely achieved by integrating intelligent neighbourhood elements owing to their strong interdependencies. Future research should assess the effectiveness of these solutions in resource conservation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency of the Buildings II)

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19 pages, 2125 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Open Innovation for the Construction Sector: Concept Overview and Test Bed Development to Boost Energy-Efficient Solutions

by Graziano Salvalai, Marta Maria Sesana, Paolo Dell’Oro and Diletta Brutti

Energies 2023, 16(14), 5522; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16145522 - 21 Jul 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1678

Abstract

Open innovation has recently emerged as an important concept in both academic research and industrial practice, and it is now also becoming increasingly important in the public policy field due to the innovation challenges in different domains, such as climate change, sustainability, and [...] Read more.

Open innovation has recently emerged as an important concept in both academic research and industrial practice, and it is now also becoming increasingly important in the public policy field due to the innovation challenges in different domains, such as climate change, sustainability, and growth to name a few, but only in some value chains (i.e., automotive, manufacturing, aerospace). According to a report by McKinsey and Co., the construction industry lags behind others in adopting innovations; in fact, less than 1% of the construction industry’s revenue goes back into technology research and development. This work focuses on the current debate on the underdeveloped application of the open innovation (OI) approach to the construction sector. Namely, the foundational question is whether the OI model can be the answer to boosting innovation for the decarbonization of buildings. The research goal is to go a step further by analyzing its internal effectiveness, focusing on introducing and defining the Open Innovation Test Bed (OITB) concept. The study provides a systematic and bibliometric literature review of OI starting from a critical analysis of the concept definition and the evolution of the paradigm from the initial application to the first declination for the construction sector. All the steps analyzed allowed us to make an overall and comprehensive review of the OI concept, which is usually applied to other sectors, considering the ecosystem as the most effective declination of the OI paradigm for OITB development for building envelope solutions, thus providing answers to the two objectives identified in the introduction. Finally, the limitations of prior OI studies and the challenges for the OITB new construction paradigm are discussed, and we make recommendations for future opportunities and approach development to tackle and boost energy-efficient envelope solutions for the construction industries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency of the Buildings II)

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21 pages, 3979 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review of Methods to Create Meteorological Data Suitable for Moisture Control Design by Hygrothermal Building Envelope Simulation

by Sughwan Kim, Daniel Zirkelbach and Hartwig M. Künzel

Energies 2023, 16(7), 3271; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16073271 - 06 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1213

Abstract

Hygrothermal simulations have become essential for sustainable and resilient building design because moisture is the major cause of problems in buildings. Appropriate meteorological input data are important to obtain meaningful simulation results. Therefore, this article reviews different methods to create Hygrothermal Reference Years [...] Read more.

Hygrothermal simulations have become essential for sustainable and resilient building design because moisture is the major cause of problems in buildings. Appropriate meteorological input data are important to obtain meaningful simulation results. Therefore, this article reviews different methods to create Hygrothermal Reference Years (HRY) as severe or average climate inputs. The current standards define HRYs solely based on outdoor temperature, although moisture problems are caused by a combination of climate parameters, including driving rain and other loads. Therefore, there are also methods considering several impact parameters. The existing methods can be classified into two categories: construction-independent and construction-dependent methods. The former determines HRY based on a weather data analysis and is useful for large-scale parametric studies comprising many climatic parameters acting on buildings. The latter is based in addition to computer simulations to verify the HRY also in the context of specific construction types. It is a more comprehensive approach since the moisture responses of constructions are the decisive outcome for performance predictions. The advantages and disadvantages of the different methods are summarized and compared. Lastly, further research questions and simplifications aimed at practitioners are pointed out to arrive at reliable hygrothermal building performance predictions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency of the Buildings II)

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