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16 pages, 7560 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Remote Bridge Inspection and Actual Bridge Verification Based on 4G/5G Communication Environments

by Mai Yoshikura, Takahiro Minami, Tomotaka Fukuoka, Makoto Fujiu and Jyunichi Takayama

Electronics 2023, 12(14), 3203; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics12143203 - 24 Jul 2023

Viewed by 935

The close-up visual inspection of bridges faces several problems, including a lack of financial resources and human personnel. Hence, there has been increasing use of artificial intelligence (AI) and information and communications technology (ICT) to solve them. We previously investigated remote inspection—in which [...] Read more.

The close-up visual inspection of bridges faces several problems, including a lack of financial resources and human personnel. Hence, there has been increasing use of artificial intelligence (AI) and information and communications technology (ICT) to solve them. We previously investigated remote inspection—in which skilled engineers provided on-site support from a remote location—with the aim of reducing the labor required for on-site work and addressing the lack of personnel through the use of AI and ICT. Sharing images of bridges from inspection sites to remote locations via the Internet enables remote assessment of the sites and the ability to consider and diagnose damage. Mobile communications can be used to upload images, although the volume of image data required for inspection can be enormous and take considerable time to upload. Consequently, in this study, we investigated image uploads using 5G communication—that is, the fifth-generation technology standard for broadband cellular networks. Moreover, we measured the upload times when using 4G and 5G services and examined their operation based on differences in the communication environments. We concluded that the simulated remote inspection can be efficiently performed by adjusting the inspection method to the communication environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Applications of 5G Network)

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13 pages, 2895 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

The Implementation of Interactive VR Application and Caching Strategy Design on Mobile Edge Computing (MEC)

by Shu-Min Chuang, Chia-Sheng Chen and Eric Hsiao-Kuang Wu

Electronics 2023, 12(12), 2700; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics12122700 - 16 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1119

Abstract

Virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) have been proposed as revolutionary applications for the next generation, especially in education. Many VR applications have been designed to promote learning via virtual environments and 360° video. However, due to the strict requirements of end-to-end [...] Read more.

Virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) have been proposed as revolutionary applications for the next generation, especially in education. Many VR applications have been designed to promote learning via virtual environments and 360° video. However, due to the strict requirements of end-to-end latency and network bandwidth, numerous VR applications using 360° video streaming may not achieve a high-quality experience. To address this issue, we propose relying on tile-based 360° video streaming and the caching capacity in Mobile Edge Computing (MEC) to predict the field of view (FoV) in the head-mounted device, then deliver the required tiles. Prefetching tiles in MEC can save the bandwidth of the backend link and support multiple users. Smart caching decisions may reduce the memory at the edge and compensate for the FoV prediction error. For instance, caching whole tiles at each small cell has a higher storage cost compared to caching one small cell that covers multiple users. In this paper, we define a tile selection, caching, and FoV coverage model as the Tile Selection and Caching Problem and propose a heuristic algorithm to solve it. Using a dataset of real users’ head movements, we compare our algorithm to the Least Recently Used (LRU) and Least Frequently Used (LFU) caching policies. The results show that our proposed approach improves FoV coverage by 30% and reduces caching costs by 25% compared to LFU and LRU. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Applications of 5G Network)

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19 pages, 671 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance of Millimeter Wave Dense Cellular Network Using Stretched Exponential Path Loss Model

by Hira Mariam, Irfan Ahmed, Sundus Ali, Muhammad Imran Aslam and Ikram Ur Rehman

Electronics 2022, 11(24), 4226; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11244226 - 19 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1487

Abstract

Future wireless networks are expected to be dense and employ a higher frequency spectrum such as millimeter wave (mmwave) to support higher data rates. In a dense urban environment, the presence of obstructions causes the transmissions between the user equipment and base stations [...] Read more.

Future wireless networks are expected to be dense and employ a higher frequency spectrum such as millimeter wave (mmwave) to support higher data rates. In a dense urban environment, the presence of obstructions causes the transmissions between the user equipment and base stations to transit from line-of-sight (LOS) to non-LOS (NLOS). This transit hence emphasizes the significance of NLOS links for reliable mmwave communication. The work presented in this paper investigates the downlink performance of a mmwave cellular system by modeling the NLOS channel using stretched exponential path loss model (SEPLM) and employing a 3GPP distance-dependent LOS probability function. This path loss model has the inherent ability to define short ranges as well as obstructions in the environment as a function of its parameter resulting in a more realistic performance analysis. The path loss model is first validated for NLOS link using a data set from an open-source mmwave channel simulator. Then, a mathematical model incorporating LOS and NLOS transmissions is developed to study the impact of path loss on signal-to-interference-plus-noise (SINR) coverage probability and area spectral efficiency (ASE). The proposed framework can provide coverage performance indication over various blockage environments. Our results demonstrate that SINR coverage probability decreases exponentially with increasing base station density. Moreover, ASE initially increases with increasing BS density and is maximized for a particular density value, after which it converges to zero for higher densities. The results are also benchmarked with the existing path loss model of mmwave cellular system with different exponents for LOS and NLOS paths. It was observed that as the base station density increases, the SINR degrades more rapidly when using SEPLM as compared to the existing mmwave path loss model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Applications of 5G Network)

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18 pages, 5453 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Queue-Buffer Optimization Based on Aggressive Random Early Detection in Massive NB-IoT MANET for 5G Applications

by Syed Talib Abbas Jafri, Irfan Ahmed and Sundus Ali

Electronics 2022, 11(18), 2955; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11182955 - 18 Sep 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1803

Abstract

Elements in massive narrowband Internet of Things (NB-IoT) for 5G networks suffer severely from packet drops due to queue overflow. Active Queue Management (AQM) techniques help in maintaining queue length by dropping packets early, based on certain defined parameters. In this paper, we [...] Read more.

Elements in massive narrowband Internet of Things (NB-IoT) for 5G networks suffer severely from packet drops due to queue overflow. Active Queue Management (AQM) techniques help in maintaining queue length by dropping packets early, based on certain defined parameters. In this paper, we have proposed an AQM technique, called Aggressive Random Early Detection (AgRED) which, in comparison to previously used Random Early Detection (RED) and exponential RED technique, improves the overall end-to-end delay, throughput, and packet delivery ratio of the massive NB-IoT 5G network while using UDP. This improvement has been achieved due to a sigmoid function used by the AgRED technique, which aggressively and randomly drops the incoming packets preventing them from filling the queue. Because of the incorporation of the AgRED technique, the queue at different nodes will remain available throughout the operation of the network and the probability of delivering the packets will increase. We have analyzed and compared the performance of our proposed AgRED technique and have found that the performance gain for the proposed technique is higher than other techniques (RED and exponential RED) and passive queue management techniques (drop-tail and drop-head). The improvement in results is most significant in congested network deployment scenarios and provides improvements in massive Machine Type Communication, while also supporting ultra-low latency and reliable communication for 5G applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Applications of 5G Network)

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21 pages, 1441 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Smart Home: Deep Learning as a Method for Machine Learning in Recognition of Face, Silhouette and Human Activity in the Service of a Safe Home

by George Vardakis, George Tsamis, Eleftheria Koutsaki, Kondylakis Haridimos and Nikos Papadakis

Electronics 2022, 11(10), 1622; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11101622 - 19 May 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3226

Abstract

Despite the general improvement of living conditions and the ways of building buildings, the sense of security in or around them is often not satisfactory for their users, resulting in the search and implementation of increasingly effective protection measures. The insecurity that modern [...] Read more.

Despite the general improvement of living conditions and the ways of building buildings, the sense of security in or around them is often not satisfactory for their users, resulting in the search and implementation of increasingly effective protection measures. The insecurity that modern people face every day, especially in urban centers regarding their home security, led computer science to the development of intelligent systems, aiming to mitigate the risks and ultimately lead to the consolidation of the feeling of security. In order to establish security, smart applications were created that turned a house into a Smart and Safe Home. We first present and analyze the deep learning method and emphasize its important contribution to the development of the process for machine learning, both in terms of the development of methods for safety at home, but also in terms of its contribution to other sciences and especially medicine where the results are spectacular. We then analyze in detail the back propagation algorithm in neural networks in both linear and non-linear networks as well as the X-OR problem simulation. Machine learning has a direct and effective application with impressive results in the recognition of human activity and especially in face recognition, which is the most basic condition for choosing the most appropriate method in order to design a smart home. Due to the large amount of data and the large computing capabilities that a system must have in order to meet the needs of a safe, smart home, technologies such as fog and cloud computing are used for both face recognition and recognition of human silhouettes and figures. These smart applications compose the systems that are created mainly through “Deep Learning” methods based on machine learning techniques. Based on the study we have done and present in this work, we believe that with the use of DL technology, the creation of a completely safe house has been achieved to a large extent today, covering an urgent need these days due to the increase in crime. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Applications of 5G Network)

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15 pages, 3930 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cooperative SWIPT THz-NOMA/6G Performance Analysis

by Haider W. Oleiwi and Hamed Al-Raweshidy

Electronics 2022, 11(6), 873; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11060873 - 10 Mar 2022

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 2483

Abstract

In this paper, cooperative simultaneous wireless information and power transfer terahertz (THz)-nonorthogonal multiple access (NOMA) is considered to overcome the challenging shortages that THz communications have due to THz characteristics. The proposed system presents a noticeable improvement in energy efficiency (EE) and spectral [...] Read more.

In this paper, cooperative simultaneous wireless information and power transfer terahertz (THz)-nonorthogonal multiple access (NOMA) is considered to overcome the challenging shortages that THz communications have due to THz characteristics. The proposed system presents a noticeable improvement in energy efficiency (EE) and spectral efficiency (SE), in addition to other important metrics. By utilizing NOMA technology and THz frequencies, it aims to improve connectivity, resource management, SE, reliability, scalability, user fairness, and to enhance the overall performance of wireless communications. Accordingly, the outcome shows how the introduced energy harvesting technique manages to improve EE and SE compared with the conventional cooperative networks of the recent related work (e.g., cooperative MIMO-NOMA with THz) by 70%. The author also minimizes the transmission power and maximizes the EE by using a decode-and-forward relay rather than an intelligent reflecting surface, which aims to reduce the dissipation in the transceiver hardware, computational complexity, and improves reliability and transmission rate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Applications of 5G Network)

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18 pages, 760 KiB

Open AccessArticle

PUF-Based Key Generation Scheme for Secure Group Communication Using MEMS

by Mubarak Mehdi, Muhammad Taha Ajani, Hasan Tahir, Shahzaib Tahir, Zahoor Alizai, Fawad Khan, Qaiser Riaz and Mehdi Hussain

Electronics 2021, 10(14), 1691; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics10141691 - 15 Jul 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2481

Abstract

Consumer electronics manufacturers have been incorporating support for 4G/5G communication technologies into many electronic devices. Thus, highly capable Internet of Things (IoT)-ready versions of electronic devices are being purchased which will eventually replace traditional consumer electronics. With the goal of creating a smart [...] Read more.

Consumer electronics manufacturers have been incorporating support for 4G/5G communication technologies into many electronic devices. Thus, highly capable Internet of Things (IoT)-ready versions of electronic devices are being purchased which will eventually replace traditional consumer electronics. With the goal of creating a smart environment, the IoT devices enable data sharing, sensing, awareness, increased control. Enabled by high-speed networks, the IoT devices function in a group setting thus compounding the attack surface leading to security and privacy concerns. This research is a study on the possibility of incorporating PUF as a basis for group key generation. The challenge here lies in identifying device features that are unique, stable, reproducible and unpredictable by an adversary. Each device generates its own identity leading to collaborative cryptographic key generation in a group setting. The research uses a comprehensive hardware testbed to demonstrate the viability of PUFs for the generation of a symmetric key through collaboration. Detailed analysis of the proposed setup and the symmetric key generation scheme has shown that the system is scalable and offers unrivalled advantages compared to conventional cryptographic implementations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Applications of 5G Network)

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12 pages, 3473 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

5G-Based Real-Time Remote Inspection Support

by Mai Yoshikura, Tomotaka Fukuoka, Taiki Suwa, Makoto Fujiu, Hisayuki Ishizuka, Kousuke Takezawa, Tomoyuki Ikebayashi and Junichi Takayama

Electronics 2023, 12(5), 1082; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics12051082 - 22 Feb 2023

Viewed by 1006

Abstract

Image analysis has been increasingly used in damage detection, particularly in the inspection of aging bridges. We adopted the image-analysis-based damage detection technology to study the feasibility of remote inspection support aimed at reducing the number of engineers that are dispatched to bridge [...] Read more.

Image analysis has been increasingly used in damage detection, particularly in the inspection of aging bridges. We adopted the image-analysis-based damage detection technology to study the feasibility of remote inspection support aimed at reducing the number of engineers that are dispatched to bridge sites. The remote inspection support involves uploading bridge images from the bridge site and then issuing directions and instructions to an onsite inspection engineer while a skilled engineer at a remote location verifies the damage detection results in real time. The 5G interface, which can transfer large volumes of data in a short time, was used to upload images, enabling shorter upload times compared with 4G. In addition, by sharing damage conditions in real-time, the engineer at a remote office could ascertain them in detail and make appropriate decisions without going to the bridge site. The damages are complex in aged bridges and their decision requires extensive experience and knowledge of skilled engineers. We determined that 5G-based inspections are highly efficient because directions and instructions can be received from a bridge site in real time in cases where a skilled engineer’s decision is needed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Applications of 5G Network)

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