Novel Catalyst Materials for Low-Temperature Fuel Cells and Electrolyzers

A special issue of Catalysts (ISSN 2073-4344). This special issue belongs to the section "Catalytic Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2022) | Viewed by 31092

Special Issue Editors

Institute of Chemistry, University of Brasilia, Brasilia, Brazil
Interests: electrocatalysis; fuel cells; electrolyzers; hydrogen; electrochemical advanced oxidation processes

Special Issue Information

Dear colleagues,

Conventional electrocatalysts in low-temperature fuel cells and electrolyzers are based on the utilization of expensive and not-readily-available noble metals (especially platinum and palladium), deposited in the form of nanoparticles on carbonaceous support. This eliminates such systems from practical applications. Novel approaches have overcome this shortcoming:

  • More efficient platinum-group metals (PGM): i) preparation of well-defined nanoparticles shapes (cubes, pyramids, octahedra, truncated structure, and dendrimers); ii) the addition of second, third, or more auxiliary metals to promote the electrochemical activity of the PGM; and iii) disordered structures from dealloying processes.
  • Non-PGM catalysts: metals such as Ni, Co, Cu, Fe, Ru, Rh, and their oxides or mixed oxides, or organometallics, have been demonstrated to be active for these systems.

This Special Issue will focus on the investigation of these new catalysts, with an interest in their preparation methods and physico-chemical characterization, with regard to those studies that report a whole and detailed characterization, allowing for the correlation between physico-chemical properties and the electrochemical results. Our hope is to complete a set of manuscripts that provide an overall vision of the state-of-the-art in low-temperature fuel cells and electrolyzers.

Dr. Sabrina Campagna Zignani
Dr. José Joaquín Linares León
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • non-PGM catalysts
  • fuel cells
  • electrolyzers
  • new technologies
  • performance
  • efficiency
  • durability

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

11 pages, 3515 KiB  
Article
Facile Preparation of Porous Carbon Flake-Supported Nickel Nanoplates as Effective Catalysts for Methanol Electrooxidation
by Ali Aldalbahi, Mohamed H. El-Newehy, Hany El-Hamshary, Edmund Samuel and Sam S. Yoon
Catalysts 2022, 12(5), 556; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal12050556 - 18 May 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1415
Abstract
Herein, we report a facile and efficient method for fabricating porous carbon flakes (PCFs)-supported nickel nanoplates (Ni NPs) as electrocatalysts for methanol oxidation in alkaline media. The catalyst was fabricated in one step using molten salt synthesis. Various techniques were used to characterize [...] Read more.
Herein, we report a facile and efficient method for fabricating porous carbon flakes (PCFs)-supported nickel nanoplates (Ni NPs) as electrocatalysts for methanol oxidation in alkaline media. The catalyst was fabricated in one step using molten salt synthesis. Various techniques were used to characterize the morphology and composition of the Ni NPs@PCFs catalyst, and these revealed that the Ni NPs were dispersed finely across the PCFs with a highly crystalline structure. The Ni NPs@PCFs catalyst demonstrated high electrocatalytic activity for methanol oxidation (121 mA/cm2 vs. Ag/AgCl), and it had an onset potential of 0.35 V. It also exhibited high stability in an alkaline electrolyte for the duration of the experiment (up to 2000 s). Full article
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16 pages, 4328 KiB  
Article
Water-Based Electrophoretic Deposition of Ternary Cobalt-Nickel-Iron Oxides on AISI304 Stainless Steel for Oxygen Evolution
by Ieva Barauskienė and Eugenijus Valatka
Catalysts 2022, 12(5), 490; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal12050490 - 28 Apr 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1534
Abstract
Coatings consisting of cobalt, nickel and iron (Co-Ni-Fe) oxides were electrophoretically deposited on AISI 304-type stainless steel using aqueous suspensions without any binder. The synthesis of Co-Ni-Fe oxides was carried out by the thermal decomposition of metal nitrates with various molar ratios at [...] Read more.
Coatings consisting of cobalt, nickel and iron (Co-Ni-Fe) oxides were electrophoretically deposited on AISI 304-type stainless steel using aqueous suspensions without any binder. The synthesis of Co-Ni-Fe oxides was carried out by the thermal decomposition of metal nitrates with various molar ratios at 673 K. Structural and morphological analysis confirmed that the deposited coatings were mainly composed of spinel-type oxides with predominantly round-shaped particles. The prepared electrodes were examined for their electrocatalytic performance in oxygen generation under alkaline conditions. Various electrochemical techniques indicated the influence of iron content on the electrochemical activity of Co-Ni-Fe oxides, with the calculated values of the Tafel constant being in the range of 52–59 mV dec−1. Long-term oxygen generation for 24 h at 1.0 V revealed very good mechanical and electrocatalytic stability of the prepared electrodes, since they were able to maintain up to 98% of their initial activity. Full article
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12 pages, 2030 KiB  
Article
Promoted Performance of Layered Perovskite PrBaFe2O5+δ Cathode for Protonic Ceramic Fuel Cells by Zn Doping
by Birkneh Sirak Teketel, Bayu Admasu Beshiwork, Dong Tian, Shiyue Zhu, Halefom G. Desta, Khan Kashif, Yonghong Chen and Bin Lin
Catalysts 2022, 12(5), 488; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal12050488 - 27 Apr 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2155
Abstract
Proton-conducting solid–oxide fuel cell (H-SOFC) is an alternative promising low-temperature electrochemical cell for renewable energy, but the performance is insufficient because of the low activity of cathode materials at low temperatures. A layered perovskite oxide PrBaFe1.9Zn0.1O5+δ (PBFZ) was [...] Read more.
Proton-conducting solid–oxide fuel cell (H-SOFC) is an alternative promising low-temperature electrochemical cell for renewable energy, but the performance is insufficient because of the low activity of cathode materials at low temperatures. A layered perovskite oxide PrBaFe1.9Zn0.1O5+δ (PBFZ) was synthesized and investigated as a promising cathode material for low-temperature H-SOFC. Here, the partial substitution of Fe by Zn further enhances the electrical conductivity and thermal compatibility of PrBaFe2O5+δ (PBF). The PBFZ exhibits improved conductivity in the air at intermediate temperatures and good chemical compatibility with electrolytes. The oxygen vacancy formed at the PBFZ lattice due to Zn doping enhances proton defects, resulting in an improved performance by extending the catalytic sites to the whole cathode area. A single cell with a Ni-BZCY anode, PBFZ cathode, and BaZr0.7Ce0.2Y0.1O3-δ (BZCY) electrolyte membrane was successfully fabricated and tested at 550–700 °C. The maximum power density and Rp were enhanced to 513 mW·cm−2 and 0.3 Ω·cm2 at 700 °C, respectively, due to Zn doping. Full article
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11 pages, 2177 KiB  
Article
Highly Active Ni–Fe Based Oxide Oxygen Evolution Reaction Electrocatalysts for Alkaline Anion Exchange Membrane Electrolyser
by Immanuel Vincent, Eun-Chong Lee and Hyung-Man Kim
Catalysts 2022, 12(5), 476; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal12050476 - 23 Apr 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2855
Abstract
Oxygen evolution reaction (OER) electrocatalysts are pivotal for sustainable hydrogen production through anion exchange membrane electrolysis. Cost-effective transition metals such as nickel and iron-based oxides (Ni–Fe–Ox) have been recognized as viable catalysts for the oxygen evolution process in alkaline media. In [...] Read more.
Oxygen evolution reaction (OER) electrocatalysts are pivotal for sustainable hydrogen production through anion exchange membrane electrolysis. Cost-effective transition metals such as nickel and iron-based oxides (Ni–Fe–Ox) have been recognized as viable catalysts for the oxygen evolution process in alkaline media. In this work, we study the electrochemical characterization and stability of the Ni–Fe–Ox to find the suitability for AEM electrolysis. The results indicate that Ni–Fe–Ox has 5 times higher activity than pure Ni. The Ni–Fe–Ox electrodes exhibit an exceptionally high catalytic activity of 22 mA cm−2 at 1.55 V vs. RHE, and a Tafel value as low as 97 dec−1, for OER to occur. These findings imply that OER occurs at similar places along the Ni–Fe–Ox interface and that the Ni—Fe2O3 contact plays a significant role as the OER active site. Furthermore, it is also worth noting that the presence of metallic Ni allows for fast electron transit within the interface, which is necessary for successful electrocatalysis. Aside from the excellent OER performance, the exfoliated Ni–Fe–Ox demonstrated great stability with almost constant potential after 10 h of electrolysis at a current density of 10 mA cm−2. This work confirms Ni–Fe–Ox is a promising, highly efficient and cost-effective OER catalyst for AEM electrolysis. Full article
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12 pages, 5598 KiB  
Article
Bifunctional CuO-Ag/KB Catalyst for the Electrochemical Reduction of CO2 in an Alkaline Solid-State Electrolysis Cell
by Sabrina Campagna Zignani, Massimiliano Lo Faro, Alessandra Palella, Lorenzo Spadaro, Stefano Trocino, Carmelo Lo Vecchio and Antonino Salvatore Aricò
Catalysts 2022, 12(3), 293; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal12030293 - 04 Mar 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2156
Abstract
The conversion of carbon dioxide into value-added products is progressively gaining momentum. Several strategies have been used to develop technologies that reduce the net emissions of CO2. The utilisation of CO2 could either contribute to carbon recycling. In this paper, [...] Read more.
The conversion of carbon dioxide into value-added products is progressively gaining momentum. Several strategies have been used to develop technologies that reduce the net emissions of CO2. The utilisation of CO2 could either contribute to carbon recycling. In this paper, the transformation of CO2 was investigated in a coelectrolysis cell constituted of a solid polymer electrolyte, a carbon-supported CuO-Ag composite cathode and NiFeOx anode. Noncritical raw materials were synthesised according to the oxalate method and investigated in an alkaline environment. Low-carbon alcohols were obtained with a specific selectivity for ethanol and methanol over the CuO-Ag/KB cathode. The reaction rates at 1.6 V and 1.8 V cell voltages have been determined in steady-state experiments using NaHCO3 supporting electrolyte recirculated at the anode. Full article
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13 pages, 1757 KiB  
Article
Red Blood Cells-Derived Iron Self–Doped 3D Porous Carbon Networks for Efficient Oxygen Reduction
by Zicong Zhang, Xiangli Ru, Xiaoli Yang, Zhengyu Bai and Lin Yang
Catalysts 2022, 12(3), 273; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal12030273 - 28 Feb 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1841
Abstract
In addition to C, H and O, some biomass is also rich in mineral elements. The recovery and utilization of special mineral elements is of great significance to prepare functional materials and alleviate the current energy shortage. Herein, we describe a facile strategy [...] Read more.
In addition to C, H and O, some biomass is also rich in mineral elements. The recovery and utilization of special mineral elements is of great significance to prepare functional materials and alleviate the current energy shortage. Herein, we describe a facile strategy for making full use of the chemical composition (C, Fe) and special structure of red blood cells (RBCs) from waste pig blood to fabricate a dual metal (Fe, Co)-nitrogen (N)-doped porous carbon catalyst by pyrolysis of a mixture of RBCs biomass, cobaltous acetate, and melamine. The porous catalyst displays a comparable activity for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) to that of commercial Pt/C catalyst, with a half-wave potential of 0.821 VvsRHE in alkaline media and 0.672 VvsRHE in acid electrolyte. Especially, the as-prepared catalyst shows excellent methanol tolerance and stability in both acidic and alkaline electrolytes, which is superior to commercial Pt/C catalysts. The excellent ORR activity of FeCo-N/C(RBC) can be ascribed to the porous morphology and the cooperation between metal and nitrogen species. This work provides a novel idea of exploiting the composition of renewable biomass to modulate the activity and stability of carbon-based ORR catalysts. Full article
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24 pages, 5044 KiB  
Article
Closed-Form Formulation of the Thermodynamically Consistent Electrochemical Model Considering Electrochemical Co-Oxidation of CO and H2 for Simulating Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
by Andraž Kravos and Tomaž Katrašnik
Catalysts 2022, 12(1), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal12010056 - 04 Jan 2022
Viewed by 1467
Abstract
Achieving efficient solid oxide fuel cell operation and simultaneous prevention of degradation effects calls for the development of precise on-line monitoring and control tools based on predictive, computationally fast models. The originality of the proposed modelling approach originates from the hypothesis that the [...] Read more.
Achieving efficient solid oxide fuel cell operation and simultaneous prevention of degradation effects calls for the development of precise on-line monitoring and control tools based on predictive, computationally fast models. The originality of the proposed modelling approach originates from the hypothesis that the innovative derivation procedure enables the development of a thermodynamically consistent multi-species electrochemical model that considers the electrochemical co-oxidation of carbon monoxide and hydrogen in a closed-form. The latter is achieved by coupling the equations for anodic reaction rates with the equation for anodic potential. Furthermore, the newly derived model is capable of accommodating the diffusive transport of gaseous species through the gas diffusion layer, yielding a computationally efficient quasi-one-dimensional model. This resolves a persistent knowledge gap, as the proposed modelling approach enables the modelling of multi-species fuels in a closed form, resulting in very high computational efficiency, and thus enable the model’s real-time capability. Multiple validation steps against polarisation curves with different fuel mixtures confirm the capability of the newly developed model to replicate experimental data. Furthermore, the presented results confirm the capability of the model to accurately simulate outside the calibrated variation space under different operating conditions and reformate mixtures. These functionalities position the proposed model as a beyond state-of-the-art tool for model supported development and control applications. Full article
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13 pages, 2045 KiB  
Article
Pt Electrocatalyst Prepared by Hydrothermal Reduction onto the Gas Diffusion Layer for High-Temperature Formic Acid and Ethanol Fuel PEMFC
by Rayane da Silva Cardoso, Bruna Sartório de Castro, Sophya de Andrade Dias, Maria Clara H. Clemente, Sílvia C. L. Dias, José A. Dias, Rudy Crisafulli, José J. Linares and Gesley A. Veloso Martins
Catalysts 2021, 11(10), 1246; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal11101246 - 17 Oct 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2150
Abstract
An alternative method for the preparation of PEMFC electrodes is presented in this work based on the direct deposition of Pt particles onto the gas diffusion layer (Pt@GDL) by hydrothermal reduction of the H2PtCl6 precursor from formic acid, ethylene glycol, [...] Read more.
An alternative method for the preparation of PEMFC electrodes is presented in this work based on the direct deposition of Pt particles onto the gas diffusion layer (Pt@GDL) by hydrothermal reduction of the H2PtCl6 precursor from formic acid, ethylene glycol, and ethanol reductive solutions. There is a successful anchorage of Pt particles via the formation of Pt crystal aggregates. The influence of the reducing agent concentration and temperature was studied to analyze their influence on the size, morphology, and distribution of the Pt particles on the gas GDL. The prepared Pt@GDL was tested for formic acid and ethanol high-temperature H3PO4-doped PEMFC. The Pt@GDL prepared in the formic acid reductive atmosphere presented the best performance associated with the formation of smaller Pt crystals and a more homogeneous dispersion of the Pt particles. For formic acid and ethanol-fed high-temperature PEMFC using a H3PO4-doped polybenzimidazole membrane as the solid electrolyte, maximum power densities of 0.025 and 0.007 W cm−2 were drawn at 200 °C, respectively. Full article
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12 pages, 3124 KiB  
Article
Creating and Preserving Nanoparticles during Co-Sintering of Solid Oxide Electrodes and Its Impact on Electrocatalytic Activity
by Sixbert P. Muhoza and Michael D. Gross
Catalysts 2021, 11(9), 1073; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal11091073 - 06 Sep 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2344
Abstract
A novel processing method that creates and preserves ceramic nanoparticles in solid oxide electrodes during co-sintering at traditional sintering temperatures is introduced. Specifically, carbon templated samarium-doped ceria nanoparticles (nSDC) were successfully integrated with commercial lanthanum strontium cobalt ferrite (LSCF) and commercial SDC powders, [...] Read more.
A novel processing method that creates and preserves ceramic nanoparticles in solid oxide electrodes during co-sintering at traditional sintering temperatures is introduced. Specifically, carbon templated samarium-doped ceria nanoparticles (nSDC) were successfully integrated with commercial lanthanum strontium cobalt ferrite (LSCF) and commercial SDC powders, producing LSCF-SDC-nSDC cathodes upon processing. The effect of nSDC concentration on cathode electrocatalytic activity was investigated at low operational temperatures, 600 °C–700 °C, with symmetrical cells. Low nSDC loadings, ≤5 wt% nSDC, significantly decreased cell polarization resistance whereas higher loadings increased it. The best electrochemical performance was achieved with 5 wt% nSDC, lowering the polarization resistance by 41% at 600 °C. Fuel cell tests demonstrate that adding 5 wt% nSDC increased the maximum fuel cell power density by 38%. Electrochemical impedance spectra showed substantial improvements in both fuel cell polarization resistance and ohmic resistance, indicating that nSDC increased the electrocatalytically active area of the cathode. This work demonstrates a simple, novel method for effectively increasing electrocatalytic activity of solid oxide electrodes at low operational temperatures. Full article
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14 pages, 4517 KiB  
Article
Alternative Aqueous Phase Synthesis of a PtRu/C Electrocatalyst for Direct Methanol Fuel Cells
by Qijun Wang, Ya-Wei Zhou, Zhao Jin, Chunguang Chen, Hong Li and Wen-Bin Cai
Catalysts 2021, 11(8), 925; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal11080925 - 30 Jul 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3493
Abstract
Carbon-supported PtRu nanoalloy (PtRu/C) is widely used as the anode catalyst for direct methanol fuel cells (DMFC), and an aqueous phase synthesis of PtRu/C is in high demand due to for energy-saving and environmentally-benign considerations, however, it is very challenging to attain stoichiometric [...] Read more.
Carbon-supported PtRu nanoalloy (PtRu/C) is widely used as the anode catalyst for direct methanol fuel cells (DMFC), and an aqueous phase synthesis of PtRu/C is in high demand due to for energy-saving and environmentally-benign considerations, however, it is very challenging to attain stoichiometric reduction, good dispersion and a high alloying degree. Herein, we report a facile aqueous phase approach with dimethylamine borane (DMAB) as the reducing agent to synthesize a PtRu/C(DMAB). TEM, XRD, XPS and ICP-AES characterizations indicate that the structural parameters in the PtRu/C(DMAB) are improved significantly as compared to those obtained in a PtRu/C(NaBH4) and a commercial PtRu/C, contributing to an enhanced electrocatalytic performance. It turns out that the PtRu/C(DMAB) exhibits the highest methanol electro-oxidation (MOR) performance among all of the tested samples, with the peak current up to 1.8 times as much as that of the state-of-the-art commercial PtRu/C, corroborating the highest output power density in comparative DMFC tests. In-situ attenuated total reflection infrared (ATR-IR) spectroscopy correlates the higher methanol electro-oxidation performance of the PtRu/C(DMAB) with its enhanced CO resistance and CO2 generation. This simple aqueous synthetic approach may provide an alternative route for developing efficient anode electrocatalysts of DMFCs. Full article
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14 pages, 33866 KiB  
Article
Enhanced Performance of Pt Nanoparticles on Ni-N Co-Doped Graphitized Carbon for Oxygen Reduction Reaction in Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells
by Won Suk Jung
Catalysts 2021, 11(8), 909; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal11080909 - 28 Jul 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2020
Abstract
Since the reaction rate and cost for cathodic catalyst in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells are obstacles for commercialization, the high-performance catalyst for oxygen reduction reaction is necessary. The Ni encapsulated with N-doped graphitic carbon (Ni@NGC) prepared with ethylenediamine and carbon black is [...] Read more.
Since the reaction rate and cost for cathodic catalyst in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells are obstacles for commercialization, the high-performance catalyst for oxygen reduction reaction is necessary. The Ni encapsulated with N-doped graphitic carbon (Ni@NGC) prepared with ethylenediamine and carbon black is employed as an efficient support for the oxygen reduction reaction. Characterizations show that the Ni@NGC has a large surface area and mesoporous structure that is suitable to the support for the Pt catalyst. The catalyst structure is identified and the size of Pt nanoparticles distributed in the narrow range of 2–3 nm. Four different nitrogen species are doped properly into graphitic carbon structure. The Pt/Ni@NGC shows higher performance than the commercial Pt/C catalyst in an acidic electrolyte. The mass activity of the Pt/Ni@NGC in fuel cell tests exhibits over 1.5 times higher than that of commercial Pt/C catalyst. The Pt/Ni@NGC catalyst at low Pt loading exhibits 47% higher maximum power density than the Pt/C catalyst under H2-air atmosphere. These results indicate that the Ni@NGC as a support is significantly beneficial to improving activity. Full article
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11 pages, 60339 KiB  
Article
Two-Dimensional Layered NiLiP2S6 Crystals as an Efficient Bifunctional Electrocatalyst for Overall Water Splitting
by Song-Jeng Huang, Adil Muneeb, Palani Sabhapathy, Khasim Saheb Bayikadi, Tahir Murtaza, Kalaivanan Raju, Li-Chyong Chen, Kuei-Hsien Chen and Raman Sankar
Catalysts 2021, 11(7), 786; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal11070786 - 28 Jun 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2611
Abstract
The quest of earth-abundant bifunctional electrocatalysts for highly efficient oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) is essential for clean and renewable energy systems. Herein, directed by the experimental analysis, we demonstrate layered nickel lithium phosphosulfide (NiLiP2S6) [...] Read more.
The quest of earth-abundant bifunctional electrocatalysts for highly efficient oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) is essential for clean and renewable energy systems. Herein, directed by the experimental analysis, we demonstrate layered nickel lithium phosphosulfide (NiLiP2S6) crystal as a highly efficient water-splitting catalyst in alkaline media. With strained lattice due to stacked layers as observed by TEM and electronic structure analysis performed by XPS showed mixed Ni2+,3+ oxidation states induced by addition of Li as a cation, NiLiP2S6 displays excellent OER (current density of 10 mA cm–2 showed an overpotential of 303 mV vs. RHE and a Tafel slope of 114 mV dec–1) and HER activity (current density of −10 mA cm–2 showed an overpotential of 184 mV vs. RHE and a Tafel slope of 94.5 mV dec–1). Finally, an alkaline media was employed to demonstrate the overall water splitting using NiLiP2S6 as both the anode and the cathode, which attained a 50 mA cm−2 current density at 1.68 V. This bimetallic phosphosulfide, together with long-term stability and enhanced intrinsic activity, shows enormous potential in water splitting applications. Full article
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12 pages, 2618 KiB  
Article
Impact of the Cathode Layer Printing Process on the Performance of MEA Integrating PGM Free Catalyst
by Pierre Toudret, Jean-François Blachot, Marie Heitzmann and Pierre-André Jacques
Catalysts 2021, 11(6), 669; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal11060669 - 24 May 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2912
Abstract
In this work, platinum group metal (PGM) free-based cathode active layers were prepared using different printing techniques. The membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs) integrate a PGM free catalyst based on Fe, N and C atoms at the cathode side. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images [...] Read more.
In this work, platinum group metal (PGM) free-based cathode active layers were prepared using different printing techniques. The membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs) integrate a PGM free catalyst based on Fe, N and C atoms at the cathode side. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of MEA cross sections showed the strong impact of the fabrication process on the cathode structure, the porosity and the ionomer repartition. The MEAs were characterized in a 25 cm2 single cell using cyclic voltammetry under H2/N2. The performance of the MEAs and the double layer capacity of the cathodes were also shown to be linked to the process used. The comparison of the electrochemical accessible surface of the catalyst and of its surface area (SBET) led to the determination of a utilization factor. The coated membrane (CCM) made using the decal transfer process gives the best performances. Full article
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