Editorial

6 pages, 232 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Frontiers of Wearable Biosensors for Human Health Monitoring

by Xiaojun Xian

Biosensors 2023, 13(11), 964; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios13110964 - 31 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1524

Wearable biosensors offer noninvasive, real-time, and continuous monitoring of diverse human health data, making them invaluable for remote patient tracking, early diagnosis, and personalized medicine [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontiers of Wearable Biosensors for Human Health Monitoring)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

16 pages, 2152 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Feasibility Analysis and Implementation of Head-Mounted Electrical Impedance Respiratory Monitoring

by Hongli Yan, Xudong Yang, Yanyan Liu, Wanting He, Yipeng Liao, Jiejie Yang and Yueming Gao

Biosensors 2022, 12(11), 934; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12110934 - 27 Oct 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1666

Abstract

The respiratory rate is one of the crucial indicators for monitoring human physiological health. The purpose of this paper was to introduce a head-mounted respiratory monitoring solution based on electrical impedance sensing. Firstly, we constructed a finite element model to analyze the feasibility [...] Read more.

The respiratory rate is one of the crucial indicators for monitoring human physiological health. The purpose of this paper was to introduce a head-mounted respiratory monitoring solution based on electrical impedance sensing. Firstly, we constructed a finite element model to analyze the feasibility of using head impedance for respiratory sensing based on the physiological changes in the pharynx. After that, we developed a circuit module that could be integrated into a head-mounted respiratory monitoring device using a bioelectrical impedance sensor. Furthermore, we combined adaptive filtering and respiratory tracking algorithms to develop an app for a mobile phone. Finally, we conducted controlled experiments to verify the effectiveness of this electrical impedance sensing system for extracting respiratory rate. We found that the respiration rates measured by the head-mounted electrical impedance respiratory monitoring system were not significantly different from those of commercial respiratory monitoring devices by a paired t-test (p > 0.05). The results showed that the respiratory rates of all subjects were within the 95% confidence interval. Therefore, the head-mounted respiratory monitoring scheme proposed in this paper was able to accurately measure respiratory rate, indicating the feasibility of this solution. In addition, this respiratory monitoring scheme helps to achieve real-time continuous respiratory monitoring, which can provide new insights for personalized health monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontiers of Wearable Biosensors for Human Health Monitoring)

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13 pages, 2322 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Patient-Ready Wearable Transcutaneous CO₂ Sensor

by Juan Pedro Cascales, Xiaolei Li, Emmanuel Roussakis and Conor L. Evans

Biosensors 2022, 12(5), 333; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12050333 - 13 May 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3601

Abstract

Continuously monitoring transcutaneous CO₂ partial pressure is of crucial importance in the diagnosis and treatment of respiratory and cardiac diseases. Despite significant progress in the development of CO₂ sensors, their implementation as portable or wearable devices for real-time monitoring remains under-explored. [...] Read more.

Continuously monitoring transcutaneous CO₂ partial pressure is of crucial importance in the diagnosis and treatment of respiratory and cardiac diseases. Despite significant progress in the development of CO₂ sensors, their implementation as portable or wearable devices for real-time monitoring remains under-explored. Here, we report on the creation of a wearable prototype device for transcutaneous CO₂ monitoring based on quantifying the fluorescence of a highly breathable CO₂-sensing film. The developed materials are based on a fluorescent pH indicator (8-hydroxy-1,3,6-pyrenetrisulfonic acid trisodium salt or HPTS) embedded into hydrophobic polymer matrices. The film’s fluorescence is highly sensitive to changes in CO₂ partial pressure in the physiological range, as well as photostable and insensitive to humidity. The device and medical-grade films are based on our prior work on transcutaneous oxygen-sensing technology, which has been extensively validated clinically. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontiers of Wearable Biosensors for Human Health Monitoring)

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11 pages, 1482 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lowering the Sampling Rate: Heart Rate Response during Cognitive Fatigue

by Kar Fye Alvin Lee, Elliot Chan, Josip Car, Woon-Seng Gan and Georgios Christopoulos

Biosensors 2022, 12(5), 315; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12050315 - 10 May 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2422

Abstract

Cognitive fatigue is a mental state characterised by feelings of tiredness and impaired cognitive functioning due to sustained cognitive demands. Frequency-domain heart rate variability (HRV) features have been found to vary as a function of cognitive fatigue. However, it has yet to be [...] Read more.

Cognitive fatigue is a mental state characterised by feelings of tiredness and impaired cognitive functioning due to sustained cognitive demands. Frequency-domain heart rate variability (HRV) features have been found to vary as a function of cognitive fatigue. However, it has yet to be determined whether HRV features derived from electrocardiogram data with a low sampling rate would remain sensitive to cognitive fatigue. Bridging this research gap is important as it has substantial implications for designing more energy-efficient and less memory-hungry wearables to monitor cognitive fatigue. This study aimed to examine (1) the level of agreement between frequency-domain HRV features derived from lower and higher sampling rates, and (2) whether frequency-domain HRV features derived from lower sampling rates could predict cognitive fatigue. Participants (N = 53) were put through a cognitively fatiguing 2-back task for 20 min whilst their electrocardiograms were recorded. Results revealed that frequency-domain HRV features derived from sampling rate as low as 125 Hz remained almost perfectly in agreement with features derived from the original sampling rate at 2000 Hz. Furthermore, frequency domain features, such as normalised low-frequency power, normalised high-frequency power, and the ratio of low- to high-frequency power varied as a function of increasing cognitive fatigue during the task across all sampling rates. In conclusion, it appears that sampling at 125 Hz is more than adequate for frequency-domain feature extraction to index cognitive fatigue. These findings have significant implications for the design of low-cost wearables for detecting cognitive fatigue. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontiers of Wearable Biosensors for Human Health Monitoring)

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19 pages, 5587 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Teenager Physical Fitness Evaluation Model Based on 1D-CNN with LSTM and Wearable Running PPG Recordings

by Junqi Guo, Boxin Wan, Siyu Zheng, Aohua Song and Wenshan Huang

Biosensors 2022, 12(4), 202; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12040202 - 28 Mar 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2206

Abstract

People attach greater importance to the physical health of teenagers because adolescence is a critical period for the healthy development of the human body. With the progress of biosensing technologies and artificial intelligence, it is feasible to apply wearable devices to continuously record [...] Read more.

People attach greater importance to the physical health of teenagers because adolescence is a critical period for the healthy development of the human body. With the progress of biosensing technologies and artificial intelligence, it is feasible to apply wearable devices to continuously record teenagers’ physiological signals and make analyses based on modern advanced methods. To solve the challenge that traditional methods of monitoring teenagers’ physical fitness lack accurate computational models and in-depth data analyses, we propose a novel evaluation model for predicting the physical fitness of teenagers. First, we collected 1024 teenagers’ PPGs under the guidance of the proposed three-stage running paradigm. Next, we applied the median filter and wavelet transform to denoise the original signals and obtain HR and SpO₂. Then, we used the Pearson correlation coefficient method to finalize the feature set, based on the extracted nine physical features. Finally, we built a 1D-CNN with LSTM model to classify teenagers’ physical fitness condition into four levels: excellent, good, medium, and poor, with an accuracy of 98.27% for boys’ physical fitness prediction, and 99.26% for girls’ physical fitness prediction. The experimental results provide evidence supporting the feasibility of predicting teenagers’ physical fitness levels by their running PPG recordings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontiers of Wearable Biosensors for Human Health Monitoring)

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11 pages, 708 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantitative Changes in Muscular and Capillary Oxygen Desaturation Measured by Optical Sensors during Continuous Positive Airway Pressure Titration for Obstructive Sleep Apnea

by Zhongxing Zhang, Ming Qi, Gordana Hügli and Ramin Khatami

Biosensors 2022, 12(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12010003 - 21 Dec 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2846

Abstract

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is a common sleep disorder, and continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) is the most effective treatment. Poor adherence is one of the major challenges in CPAP therapy. The recent boom of wearable optical sensors measuring oxygen saturation makes at-home [...] Read more.

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is a common sleep disorder, and continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) is the most effective treatment. Poor adherence is one of the major challenges in CPAP therapy. The recent boom of wearable optical sensors measuring oxygen saturation makes at-home multiple-night CPAP titrations possible, which may essentially improve the adherence of CPAP therapy by optimizing its pressure in a real-life setting economically. We tested whether the oxygen desaturations (ODs) measured in the arm muscle (arm_OD) by gold-standard frequency-domain multi-distance near-infrared spectroscopy (FDMD-NIRS) change quantitatively with titrated CPAP pressures in OSA patients together with polysomnography. We found that the arm_OD (2.08 ± 1.23%, mean ± standard deviation) was significantly smaller (p-value < 0.0001) than the fingertip OD (finger_OD) (4.46 ± 2.37%) measured by a polysomnography pulse oximeter. Linear mixed-effects models suggested that CPAP pressure was a significant predictor for finger_OD but not for arm_OD. Since FDMD-NIRS measures a mixture of arterial and venous OD, whereas a fingertip pulse oximeter measures arterial OD, our results of no association between arm_OD and finger_OD indicate that the arm_OD mainly represented venous desaturation. Arm_OD measured by optical sensors used for wearables may not be a suitable indicator of the CPAP titration effectiveness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontiers of Wearable Biosensors for Human Health Monitoring)

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17 pages, 3756 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mitigation of Data Packet Loss in Bluetooth Low Energy-Based Wearable Healthcare Ecosystem

by Vishal Varun Tipparaju, Kyle R. Mallires, Di Wang, Francis Tsow and Xiaojun Xian

Biosensors 2021, 11(10), 350; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios11100350 - 23 Sep 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3204

Abstract

Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) plays a critical role in wireless data transmission in wearable technologies. The previous work in this field has mostly focused on optimizing the transmission throughput and power consumption. However, not much work has been reported on a systematic evaluation [...] Read more.

Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) plays a critical role in wireless data transmission in wearable technologies. The previous work in this field has mostly focused on optimizing the transmission throughput and power consumption. However, not much work has been reported on a systematic evaluation of the data packet loss of BLE in the wearable healthcare ecosystem, which is essential for reliable and secure data transmission. Considering that diverse wearable devices are used as peripherals and off-the-shelf smartphones (Android, iPhone) or Raspberry Pi with various chipsets and operating systems (OS) as hubs in the wearable ecosystem, there is an urgent need to understand the factors that influence data loss in BLE and develop a mitigation solution to address the data loss issue. In this work, we have systematically evaluated packet losses in Android and iOS based wearable ecosystems and proposed a reduced transmission frequency and data bundling strategy along with queue-based packet transmission protocol to mitigate data packet loss in BLE. The proposed protocol provides flexibility to the peripheral device to work with the host either in real-time mode for timely data transmission or offline mode for accumulated data transmission when there is a request from the host. The test results show that lowered transmission frequency and data bundling reduce the packet losses to less than 1%. The queue-based packet transmission protocol eliminates any remaining packet loss by using re-request routines. The data loss mitigation protocol developed in this research can be widely applied to the BLE-based wearable ecosystem for various applications, such as body sensor networks (BSN), the Internet of Things (IoT), and smart homes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontiers of Wearable Biosensors for Human Health Monitoring)

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14 pages, 6312 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of the Complete ECG Waveform with Woven Textile Electrodes

by Katya Arquilla, Laura Devendorf, Andrea K. Webb and Allison P. Anderson

Biosensors 2021, 11(9), 331; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios11090331 - 13 Sep 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2903

Abstract

Wearable physiological monitoring systems are becoming increasingly prevalent in the push toward autonomous health monitoring and offer new modalities for playful and purposeful interaction within human computer interaction (HCI). Sensing systems that can be integrated into garments and, therefore, daily activities offer promising [...] Read more.

Wearable physiological monitoring systems are becoming increasingly prevalent in the push toward autonomous health monitoring and offer new modalities for playful and purposeful interaction within human computer interaction (HCI). Sensing systems that can be integrated into garments and, therefore, daily activities offer promising pathways toward ubiquitous integration. The electrocardiogram (ECG) signal is commonly monitored in healthcare and is increasingly utilized as a method of determining emotional and psychological state; however, the complete ECG waveform with the P, Q, R, S, and T peaks is not commonly used, due to the challenges associated with collecting the full waveform with wearable systems. We present woven textile electrodes as an option for garment-integrated ECG monitoring systems that are capable of capturing the complete ECG waveform. In this work, we present the changes in the peak detection performance caused by different sizes, patterns, and thread types with data from 10 human participants. These testing results provide empirically-derived guidelines for future woven textile electrodes, present a path forward for assessing design decisions, and highlight the importance of testing novel wearable sensor systems with more than a single individual. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontiers of Wearable Biosensors for Human Health Monitoring)

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10 pages, 1980 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wearable Intracranial Pressure Monitoring Sensor for Infants

by Baoyue Zhang, Ziyi Huang, Huixue Song, Hyun Soo Kim and Jaewon Park

Biosensors 2021, 11(7), 213; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios11070213 - 29 Jun 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3334

Abstract

Monitoring of intracranial pressure (ICP) is important for patients at risk of raised ICP, which may indicate developing diseases in brains that can lead to brain damage or even death. Monitoring ICP can be invaluable in the management of patients suffering from brain [...] Read more.

Monitoring of intracranial pressure (ICP) is important for patients at risk of raised ICP, which may indicate developing diseases in brains that can lead to brain damage or even death. Monitoring ICP can be invaluable in the management of patients suffering from brain injury or hydrocephalus. To date, invasive measurements are still the standard method for monitoring ICP; however, these methods can not only cause bleeding or infection but are also very inconvenient to use, particularly for infants. Currently, none of the non-invasive methods can provide sufficient accuracy and ease of use while allowing continuous monitoring in routine clinical use at low cost. Here, we have developed a wearable, non-invasive ICP sensor that can be used like a band-aid. For the fabrication of the ICP sensor, a novel freeze casting method was developed to encapsulate the liquid metal microstructures within thin and flexible polymers. The final thickness of the ICP sensor demonstrated is 500 µm and can be further reduced. Three different designs of ICP sensors were tested under various pressure actuation conditions as well as different temperature environments, where the measured pressure changes were stable with the largest stability coefficient of variation being only CV = 0.0206. In addition, the sensor output values showed an extremely high linear correlation (R² > 0.9990) with the applied pressures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontiers of Wearable Biosensors for Human Health Monitoring)

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14 pages, 1368 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Validation Study of a Commercial Wearable Device to Automatically Detect and Estimate Sleep

by Dean J. Miller, Gregory D. Roach, Michele Lastella, Aaron T. Scanlan, Clint R. Bellenger, Shona L. Halson and Charli Sargent

Biosensors 2021, 11(6), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios11060185 - 08 Jun 2021

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 5916

Abstract

The aims of this study were to: (1) compare actigraphy (ACTICAL) and a commercially available sleep wearable (i.e., WHOOP) under two functionalities (i.e., sleep auto-detection (WHOOP-AUTO) and manual adjustment of sleep (WHOOP-MANUAL)) for two-stage categorisation of sleep (sleep or wake) against polysomnography, and; [...] Read more.

The aims of this study were to: (1) compare actigraphy (ACTICAL) and a commercially available sleep wearable (i.e., WHOOP) under two functionalities (i.e., sleep auto-detection (WHOOP-AUTO) and manual adjustment of sleep (WHOOP-MANUAL)) for two-stage categorisation of sleep (sleep or wake) against polysomnography, and; (2) compare WHOOP-AUTO and WHOOP-MANUAL for four-stage categorisation of sleep (wake, light sleep, slow wave sleep (SWS), or rapid eye movement sleep (REM)) against polysomnography. Six healthy adults (male: n = 3; female: n = 3; age: 23.0 ± 2.2 yr) participated in the nine-night protocol. Fifty-four sleeps assessed by ACTICAL, WHOOP-AUTO and WHOOP-MANUAL were compared to polysomnography using difference testing, Bland–Altman comparisons, and 30-s epoch-by-epoch comparisons. Compared to polysomnography, ACTICAL overestimated total sleep time (37.6 min) and underestimated wake (−37.6 min); WHOOP-AUTO underestimated SWS (−15.5 min); and WHOOP-MANUAL underestimated wake (−16.7 min). For ACTICAL, sensitivity for sleep, specificity for wake and overall agreement were 98%, 60% and 89%, respectively. For WHOOP-AUTO, sensitivity for sleep, wake, and agreement for two-stage and four-stage categorisation of sleep were 90%, 60%, 86% and 63%, respectively. For WHOOP-MANUAL, sensitivity for sleep, wake, and agreement for two-stage and four-stage categorisation of sleep were 97%, 45%, 90% and 62%, respectively. WHOOP-AUTO and WHOOP-MANUAL have a similar sensitivity and specificity to actigraphy for two-stage categorisation of sleep and can be used as a practical alternative to polysomnography for two-stage categorisation of sleep and four-stage categorisation of sleep. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontiers of Wearable Biosensors for Human Health Monitoring)

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11 pages, 3904 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stretchable Capacitive Pressure Sensing Sleeve Deployable onto Catheter Balloons towards Continuous Intra-Abdominal Pressure Monitoring

by Kirthika Senthil Kumar, Zongyuan Xu, Manivannan Sivaperuman Kalairaj, Godwin Ponraj, Hui Huang, Chi-Fai Ng, Qing Hui Wu and Hongliang Ren

Biosensors 2021, 11(5), 156; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios11050156 - 14 May 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 6183

Abstract

Intra-abdominal pressure (IAP) is closely correlated with intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH) and abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) diagnoses, indicating the need for continuous monitoring. Early intervention for IAH and ACS has been proven to reduce the rate of morbidity. However, the current IAP monitoring method [...] Read more.

Intra-abdominal pressure (IAP) is closely correlated with intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH) and abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) diagnoses, indicating the need for continuous monitoring. Early intervention for IAH and ACS has been proven to reduce the rate of morbidity. However, the current IAP monitoring method is a tedious process with a long calibration time for a single time point measurement. Thus, there is the need for an efficient and continuous way of measuring IAP. Herein, a stretchable capacitive pressure sensor with controlled microstructures embedded into a cylindrical elastomeric mold, fabricated as a pressure sensing sleeve, is presented. The sensing sleeve can be readily deployed onto intrabody catheter balloons for pressure measurement at the site. The thin and highly conformable nature of the pressure sensing sleeve captures the pressure change without hindering the functionality of the foley catheter balloon. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontiers of Wearable Biosensors for Human Health Monitoring)

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Review

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22 pages, 3573 KiB

Open AccessReview

Flexible Wearable Sensors in Medical Monitoring

by Yingying Yuan, Bo Liu, Hui Li, Mo Li, Yingqiu Song, Runze Wang, Tianlu Wang and Hangyu Zhang

Biosensors 2022, 12(12), 1069; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12121069 - 23 Nov 2022

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4460

Abstract

The popularity of health concepts and the wave of digitalization have driven the innovation of sensors in the medical field. Such continual development has made sensors progress in the direction of safety, flexibility, and intelligence for continuous monitoring of vital signs, which holds [...] Read more.

The popularity of health concepts and the wave of digitalization have driven the innovation of sensors in the medical field. Such continual development has made sensors progress in the direction of safety, flexibility, and intelligence for continuous monitoring of vital signs, which holds considerable promise for changing the way humans live and even treat diseases. To this end, flexible wearable devices with high performance, such as high sensitivity, high stability, and excellent biodegradability, have attracted strong interest from scientists. Herein, a review of flexible wearable sensors for temperature, heart rate, human motion, respiratory rate, glucose, and pH is highlighted. In addition, engineering issues are also presented, focusing on material selection, sensor fabrication, and power supply. Finally, potential challenges facing current technology and future directions of wearable sensors are also discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontiers of Wearable Biosensors for Human Health Monitoring)

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37 pages, 4723 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of EMG-, FMG-, and EIT-Based Biosensors and Relevant Human–Machine Interactivities and Biomedical Applications

by Zhuo Zheng, Zinan Wu, Runkun Zhao, Yinghui Ni, Xutian Jing and Shuo Gao

Biosensors 2022, 12(7), 516; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12070516 - 12 Jul 2022

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4182

Abstract

Wearables developed for human body signal detection receive increasing attention in the current decade. Compared to implantable sensors, wearables are more focused on body motion detection, which can support human–machine interaction (HMI) and biomedical applications. In wearables, electromyography (EMG)-, force myography (FMG)-, and [...] Read more.

Wearables developed for human body signal detection receive increasing attention in the current decade. Compared to implantable sensors, wearables are more focused on body motion detection, which can support human–machine interaction (HMI) and biomedical applications. In wearables, electromyography (EMG)-, force myography (FMG)-, and electrical impedance tomography (EIT)-based body information monitoring technologies are broadly presented. In the literature, all of them have been adopted for many similar application scenarios, which easily confuses researchers when they start to explore the area. Hence, in this article, we review the three technologies in detail, from basics including working principles, device architectures, interpretation algorithms, application examples, merits and drawbacks, to state-of-the-art works, challenges remaining to be solved and the outlook of the field. We believe the content in this paper could help readers create a whole image of designing and applying the three technologies in relevant scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontiers of Wearable Biosensors for Human Health Monitoring)

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31 pages, 7175 KiB

Open AccessReview

Remote Healthcare for Elderly People Using Wearables: A Review

by José Oscar Olmedo-Aguirre, Josimar Reyes-Campos, Giner Alor-Hernández, Isaac Machorro-Cano, Lisbeth Rodríguez-Mazahua and José Luis Sánchez-Cervantes

Biosensors 2022, 12(2), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12020073 - 27 Jan 2022

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 7828

Abstract

The growth of health care spending on older adults with chronic diseases faces major concerns that require effective measures to be adopted worldwide. Among the main concerns is whether recent technological advances now offer the possibility of providing remote health care for the [...] Read more.

The growth of health care spending on older adults with chronic diseases faces major concerns that require effective measures to be adopted worldwide. Among the main concerns is whether recent technological advances now offer the possibility of providing remote health care for the aging population. The benefits of suitable prevention and adequate monitoring of chronic diseases by using emerging technological paradigms such as wearable devices and the Internet of Things (IoT) can increase the detection rates of health risks to raise the quality of life for the elderly. Specifically, on the subject of remote health monitoring in older adults, a first approach is required to review devices, sensors, and wearables that serve as tools for obtaining and measuring physiological parameters in order to identify progress, limitations, and areas of opportunity in the development of health monitoring schemes. For these reasons, a review of articles on wearable devices was presented in the first instance to identify whether the selected articles addressed the needs of aged adults. Subsequently, the direct review of commercial and prototype wearable devices with the capability to read physiological parameters was presented to identify whether they are optimal or usable for health monitoring in older adults. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontiers of Wearable Biosensors for Human Health Monitoring)

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