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Physiological, Biochemical, and Molecular Response in Plants under Light-Emitting Diode...
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Physiological, Biochemical, and Molecular Response in Plants under Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Treatment

A special issue of Biology (ISSN 2079-7737). This special issue belongs to the section "Plant Science".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2023) | Viewed by 28450

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Costantino Paciolla

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Guest Editor
Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Bari "Aldo Moro", I-70125 Bari, Italy
Interests: antioxidant systems; plant defense responses; secondary metabolites; light in post-harvest; shelf-life
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Alessandra Villani

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Biology, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Via E. Orabona 4, 70125 Bari, Italy
Interests: antioxidant systems; food safety; genomics; light in pre- and postharvest; secondary metabolites
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Martina Loi

E-Mail Website1 Website2
Guest Editor
Italian National Research Council, CNR · Institute of Sciences of Food Production ISPA, Bari, Italy
Interests: redox-active enzymes; phenols; antioxidant activity; food safety; biological methods for mycotoxin reduction
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Plants have a wide variety of photoreceptors that selectively respond to radiations of the electromagnetic spectrum, allowing and modulating different physiological and biochemical processes, including photosynthesis, photomorphogenesis, phototropism, shade avoidance, and both circadian and circannual rhythms. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have proven to be useful for elucidating the molecular basis of these responses with their ability to independently control light wavelength and intensity. Due to these unique advantages, in the last decade, LEDs have been widely applied in horticulture on economically relevant crops to counteract biotic and abiotic stress, enhance plant productivity, control plant flowering and pests, increase and promote the synthesis of beneficial bioactive compounds, and prolong the shelf-life of fruits and vegetables during postharvest storage. Overall, understanding the physiological, biochemical, and molecular responses induced by LED lights on different plant species and even cultivars is a crucial step to optimize specific “light recipes” for optimal plant growth and health.

This Special Issue aims to summarize some of the newest advances related to physiological aspects, and the key molecular and biochemical mechanisms underlying plant responses under LED treatment. Original research papers and reviews focusing on plant growth and productivity, plant nutritional, nutraceutical and functional properties, and the safety and quality of plant products at harvest and postharvest under LED treatment, are welcome.

We hope that multidisciplinary applications of knowledge will provide substantial benefits for future research in plant science.

Dr. Costantino Paciolla
Dr. Alessandra Villani
Dr. Martina Loi
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Biology is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

 

Keywords

  • antioxidants
  • bioactive compounds
  • biotic and abiotic stress
  • food quality
  • LED
  • nutrients
  • plant defense
  • plant response
  • productivity

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

13 pages, 4163 KiB  
Article
White LED Lighting Increases the Root Productivity of Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer in a Hydroponic Cultivation System of a Plant Factory
by Se-Hee Kim, Jae-Hoon Park, Eui-Joo Kim, Jung-Min Lee, Ji-Won Park, Yoon-Seo Kim, Gyu-Ri Kim, Ju-Seon Lee, Eung-Pill Lee and Young-Han You
Biology 2023, 12(8), 1052; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology12081052 - 26 Jul 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1327
Abstract
To identify effective light spectra for increasing the productivity of Panax ginseng, we conducted experiments in a controlled environment using a hydroponic cultivation system in a plant factory. We investigated the effect of single LEDs (red, blue, and yellow) and mixed LEDs [...] Read more.
To identify effective light spectra for increasing the productivity of Panax ginseng, we conducted experiments in a controlled environment using a hydroponic cultivation system in a plant factory. We investigated the effect of single LEDs (red, blue, and yellow) and mixed LEDs (red + blue and red + blue + white). The relationships between four light spectra (red, blue, yellow, and white) and physiological responses (net photosynthetic rate, stomata conductance, transpiration rate, and intercellular CO2 partial pressure), as well as growth responses (shoot and root biomass), were analyzed using multivariate statistical analysis. Among the four physiological response variables, shoot biomass was not increased by any pathway, and root biomass was increased only by the intercellular CO2 partial pressure. Red and yellow light increased shoot biomass, whereas white light promoted an increase in the net photosynthetic rate and enhanced root biomass. In contrast, blue light was less effective than the other light spectra in increasing both shoot and root biomass. Therefore, red and yellow light are the most effective light spectra for increasing shoot biomass and white light is effective for increasing root biomass in a plant factory that uses artificial LED lighting. Furthermore, the intercellular CO2 partial pressure is an important physiological variable for increasing the root biomass of P. ginseng. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological, Biochemical, and Molecular Response in Plants under Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Treatment)
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16 pages, 3511 KiB  
Article
Modulation of Antioxidant Compounds in Fruits of Citrus reticulata Blanco Using Postharvest LED Irradiation
by Giulia Costanzo, Ermenegilda Vitale, Maria Rosaria Iesce, Michele Spinelli, Carolina Fontanarosa, Roberta Paradiso, Angela Amoresano and Carmen Arena
Biology 2023, 12(7), 1029; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology12071029 - 21 Jul 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1133
Abstract
Phlegrean mandarin fruits are already known for health-promoting properties due to the high concentration of phytochemicals in peel, pulp, and seed. Biotic and abiotic factors, including light, may modulate their biosynthesis, metabolism, and accumulation. In this context, light-emitting diodes (LED) have recently been [...] Read more.
Phlegrean mandarin fruits are already known for health-promoting properties due to the high concentration of phytochemicals in peel, pulp, and seed. Biotic and abiotic factors, including light, may modulate their biosynthesis, metabolism, and accumulation. In this context, light-emitting diodes (LED) have recently been applied to control nutritional traits, ripening process, senescence, fruit shelf-life, and pathogenic microbial spoilage of fruits. This study investigated the effect of the seven-day exposure of Phlegrean mandarin fruits to two LED regimes, white (W) and red–blue (RB), to test the possibility that the storage under specific light wavelengths may be used as green preservation technology that enhances fruit phytochemical properties. To pursue this aim, the antioxidant activity and polyphenolic profile of the pulp and peel of mandarins under W and RB light regimes were evaluated and compared with Control fruits not exposed to LED treatment. Our results indicated that storage under W and RB treatments modulates the antioxidant content in pulp and peel differently. Compared to W, the RB regime increases the ascorbic acid, flavonoid, anthocyanin, and carotenoid concentrations, while the polyphenol profile analysis reveals that the number of important phytochemicals, i.e., quercetin rutinoside, chlorogenic acid, sinensetin, and rutin, are higher under W. The overall data demonstrated that postharvest LED irradiation is a valid tool for modifying fruit phytochemical properties, which also boosts specific bioactive compounds. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological, Biochemical, and Molecular Response in Plants under Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Treatment)
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16 pages, 2309 KiB  
Article
Growth and Nutrient Utilization in Basil Plant as Affected by Applied Nutrient Quantity in Nutrient Solution and Light Spectrum
by Xiaowei Ren, Na Lu, Wenshuo Xu, Yunfei Zhuang, Satoru Tsukagoshi and Michiko Takagaki
Biology 2022, 11(7), 991; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11070991 - 29 Jun 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1753
Abstract
Quantitative nutrient management has advantages, such as saving resources and improving nutrient utilization, compared with the conventional electrical conductivity management method. The growth and nutrient utilization of vegetables are affected by the integrated environmental conditions such as nutrient supply and light spectrum. This [...] Read more.
Quantitative nutrient management has advantages, such as saving resources and improving nutrient utilization, compared with the conventional electrical conductivity management method. The growth and nutrient utilization of vegetables are affected by the integrated environmental conditions such as nutrient supply and light spectrum. This study investigated the effects of applied nutrient quantity (ANQ) (0.5, 1, 2, and 4 times (T) the absorption quantity of nutrients determined in the preliminary experiment, indicated by 0.5T, 1T, 2T, and 4T, respectively) in nutrient solution and red:blue ratio (R:B = 3:7, 7:3, and 9:1, indicated by RB3:7, RB7:3, and RB9:1, respectively) on the growth and nutrient utilization of basil plants in a plant factory with artificial lighting. Results demonstrated that the nutrient use efficiency (NUE) and the nutrient absorption efficiency (NAE) were significantly increased by the ANQ of 0.5T compared with the treatments of 1T, 2T, and 4T, irrespective of R:B ratios. Furthermore, under the ANQ of 0.5T, RB7:3 significantly increased the yield and the absorption of N and K of the basil plant compared with other R:B ratios. Therefore, the ANQ of 0.5T combined with RB7:3 was considered the optimal combination to improve the yield, NUE, and NAE of basil plants in the present study. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological, Biochemical, and Molecular Response in Plants under Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Treatment)
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15 pages, 1266 KiB  
Article
Response of Cyanic and Acyanic Lettuce Cultivars to an Increased Proportion of Blue Light
by Laura Cammarisano and Oliver Körner
Biology 2022, 11(7), 959; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11070959 - 24 Jun 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2239
Abstract
Indoor crop cultivation systems such as vertical farms or plant factories necessitate artificial lighting. Light spectral quality can affect plant growth and metabolism and, consequently, the amount of biomass produced and the value of the produce. Conflicting results on the effects of the [...] Read more.
Indoor crop cultivation systems such as vertical farms or plant factories necessitate artificial lighting. Light spectral quality can affect plant growth and metabolism and, consequently, the amount of biomass produced and the value of the produce. Conflicting results on the effects of the light spectrum in different plant species and cultivars make it critical to implement a singular lighting solution. In this study we investigated the response of cyanic and acyanic lettuce cultivars to an increased proportion of blue light. For that, we selected a green and a red leaf lettuce cultivar (i.e., ‘Aquino’, CVg, and ‘Barlach’, CVr, respectively). The response of both cultivars to long-term blue-enriched light application compared to a white spectrum was analyzed. Plants were grown for 30 days in a growth chamber with optimal environmental conditions (temperature: 20 °C, relative humidity: 60%, ambient CO2, photon flux density (PFD) of 260 µmol m−2 s−1 over an 18 h photoperiod). At 15 days after sowing (DAS), white spectrum LEDs (WW) were compared to blue-enriched light (WB; λPeak = 423 nm) maintaining the same PFD of 260 µmol m−2 s−1. At 30 DAS, both lettuce cultivars adapted to the blue light variant, though the adaptive response was specific to the variety. The rosette weight, light use efficiency, and maximum operating efficiency of PSII photochemistry in the light, Fv/Fm’, were comparable between the two light treatments. A significant light quality effect was detected on stomatal density and conductance (20% and 17% increase under WB, respectively, in CVg) and on the modified anthocyanin reflectance index (mARI) (40% increase under WB, in CVr). Net photosynthesis response was generally stronger in CVg compared to CVr; e.g., net photosynthetic rate, Pn, at 1000 µmol m−2 s−1 PPFD increased from WW to WB by 23% in CVg, compared to 18% in CVr. The results obtained suggest the occurrence of distinct physiological adaptive strategies in green and red pigmented lettuce cultivars to adapt to the higher proportion of blue light environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological, Biochemical, and Molecular Response in Plants under Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Treatment)
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14 pages, 1487 KiB  
Article
A Noninvasive Gas Exchange Method to Test and Model Photosynthetic Proficiency and Growth Rates of In Vitro Plant Cultures: Preliminary Implication for Cannabis sativa L.
by Marco Pepe, Evangelos D. Leonardos, Telesphore R. J. G. Marie, Sean T. Kyne, Mohsen Hesami, Andrew Maxwell Phineas Jones and Bernard Grodzinski
Biology 2022, 11(5), 729; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11050729 - 10 May 2022
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5002
Abstract
Supplemental sugar additives for plant tissue culture cause mixotrophic growth, complicating carbohydrate metabolism and photosynthetic relationships. A unique platform to test and model the photosynthetic proficiency and biomass accumulation of micropropagated plantlets was introduced and applied to Cannabis sativa L. (cannabis), an emerging [...] Read more.
Supplemental sugar additives for plant tissue culture cause mixotrophic growth, complicating carbohydrate metabolism and photosynthetic relationships. A unique platform to test and model the photosynthetic proficiency and biomass accumulation of micropropagated plantlets was introduced and applied to Cannabis sativa L. (cannabis), an emerging crop with high economic interest. Conventional in vitro systems can hinder the photoautotrophic ability of plantlets due to low light intensity, low vapor pressure deficit, and limited CO2 availability. Though exogenous sucrose is routinely added to improve in vitro growth despite reduced photosynthetic capacity, reliance on sugar as a carbon source can also trigger negative responses that are species-dependent. By increasing photosynthetic activity in vitro, these negative consequences can likely be mitigated, facilitating the production of superior specimens with enhanced survivability. The presented methods use an open-flow/force-ventilated gas exchange system and infrared gas analysis to measure the impact of [CO2], light, and additional factors on in vitro photosynthesis. This system can be used to answer previously overlooked questions regarding the nature of in vitro plant physiology to enhance plant tissue culture and the overall understanding of in vitro processes, facilitating new research methods and idealized protocols for commercial tissue culture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological, Biochemical, and Molecular Response in Plants under Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Treatment)
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14 pages, 4532 KiB  
Article
Effects of Green Light on Elongation Do Not Interact with Far-Red, Unless the Phytochrome Photostationary State (PSS) Changes in Tomato
by Xue Zhang, Ep Heuvelink, Michaela Melegkou, Xin Yuan, Weijie Jiang and Leo F. M. Marcelis
Biology 2022, 11(1), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11010151 - 17 Jan 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2971
Abstract
Green light (G) could trigger a “shade avoidance syndrome” (SAS) similarly to far-red light. We aimed to test the hypothesis that G interacts with far-red light to induce SAS, with this interaction mediated by phytochromes (phys). The tomato (Solanum lycopersicum cv. Moneymaker) [...] Read more.
Green light (G) could trigger a “shade avoidance syndrome” (SAS) similarly to far-red light. We aimed to test the hypothesis that G interacts with far-red light to induce SAS, with this interaction mediated by phytochromes (phys). The tomato (Solanum lycopersicum cv. Moneymaker) wild-type (WT) and phyA, phyB1B2, and phyAB1B2 mutants were grown in a climate room with or without 30 µmol m−2 s−1 G on red/blue and red/blue/far-red backgrounds, maintaining the same photosynthetically active radiation (400–700 nm) of 150 µmol m−2 s−1 and red/blue ratio of 3. G hardly affected the dry mass accumulation or leaf area of WT, phyA, and phyB1B2 with or without far-red light. A lower phytochrome photostationary state (PSS) by adding far-red light significantly increased the total dry mass by enhancing the leaf area in WT plants but not in phy mutants. When the background light did not contain far-red light, partially replacing red/blue with G did not significantly affect stem elongation. However, when the background light contained far-red light, partially replacing red/blue with G enhanced elongation only when associated with a decrease in PSS, indicating that G interacts with far-red light on elongation only when the PSS changes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological, Biochemical, and Molecular Response in Plants under Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Treatment)
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14 pages, 1146 KiB  
Article
Additional Blue LED during Cultivation Induces Cold Tolerance in Tomato Fruit but Only to an Optimum
by Fahrizal Yusuf Affandi, Teddy Prayoga, Theoharis Ouzounis, Habtamu Giday, Julian C. Verdonk, Ernst J. Woltering and Rob E. Schouten
Biology 2022, 11(1), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11010101 - 09 Jan 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2063
Abstract
Tomato is a chilling-sensitive fruit. The aim of this study is to examine the role of preharvest blue LED lighting (BL) to induce cold tolerance in ‘Foundation’ tomatoes. Blue and red supplemental LED light was applied to achieve either 0, 12 or 24% [...] Read more.
Tomato is a chilling-sensitive fruit. The aim of this study is to examine the role of preharvest blue LED lighting (BL) to induce cold tolerance in ‘Foundation’ tomatoes. Blue and red supplemental LED light was applied to achieve either 0, 12 or 24% additional BL (0B, 12B and 24B). Mature green (MG) or red (R) tomatoes were harvested and cold stored at 4 °C for 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20 d, and then stored for 20 d at 20 °C (shelf life). Chilling injury (CI) indices, color and firmness, hydrogen peroxide, malondialdehyde, ascorbic acid and catalase activity were characterized. At harvest, R tomatoes cultivated at 12B were firmer and showed less coloration compared to fruit of other treatments. These fruits also showed higher loss of red color during cold storage and lower CI symptoms during shelf-life. MG tomatoes cultivated at 12B showed delayed coloring (non-chilled) and decreased weight loss (long cold stored) during shelf life compared to fruit in the other treatments. No effects of light treatments, both for MG and R tomatoes, were observed for the selected antioxidant capacity indicators. Improved cold tolerance for R tomatoes cultivated at 12B points to lycopene having higher scavenging activity at lower concentrations to mitigate chilling injury. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological, Biochemical, and Molecular Response in Plants under Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Treatment)
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23 pages, 4770 KiB  
Article
Ratio of Intensities of Blue and Red Light at Cultivation Influences Photosynthetic Light Reactions, Respiration, Growth, and Reflectance Indices in Lettuce
by Lyubov Yudina, Ekaterina Sukhova, Maxim Mudrilov, Vladimir Nerush, Anna Pecherina, Alexandr A. Smirnov, Alexey S. Dorokhov, Narek O. Chilingaryan, Vladimir Vodeneev and Vladimir Sukhov
Biology 2022, 11(1), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11010060 - 01 Jan 2022
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3123
Abstract
LED illumination can have a narrow spectral band; its intensity and time regime are regulated within a wide range. These characteristics are the potential basis for the use of a combination of LEDs for plant cultivation because light is the energy source that [...] Read more.
LED illumination can have a narrow spectral band; its intensity and time regime are regulated within a wide range. These characteristics are the potential basis for the use of a combination of LEDs for plant cultivation because light is the energy source that is used by plants as well as the regulator of photosynthesis, and the regulator of other physiological processes (e.g., plant development), and can cause plant damage under certain stress conditions. As a result, analyzing the influence of light spectra on physiological and growth characteristics during cultivation of different plant species is an important problem. In the present work, we investigated the influence of two variants of LED illumination (red light at an increased intensity, the “red” variant, and blue light at an increased intensity, the “blue” variant) on the parameters of photosynthetic dark and light reactions, respiration rate, leaf reflectance indices, and biomass, among other factors in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.). The same light intensity (about 180 µmol m−2s−1) was used in both variants. It was shown that the blue illumination variant increased the dark respiration rate (35–130%) and cyclic electron flow around photosystem I (18–26% at the maximal intensity of the actinic light) in comparison to the red variant; the effects were dependent on the duration of cultivation. In contrast, the blue variant decreased the rate of the photosynthetic linear electron flow (13–26%) and various plant growth parameters, such as final biomass (about 40%). Some reflectance indices (e.g., the Zarco-Tejada and Miller Index, an index that is related to the core sizes and light-harvesting complex of photosystem I), were also strongly dependent on the illumination variant. Thus, our results show that the red illumination variant contributes a great deal to lettuce growth; in contrast, the blue variant contributes to stress changes, including the activation of cyclic electron flow around photosystem I. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological, Biochemical, and Molecular Response in Plants under Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Treatment)
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13 pages, 1498 KiB  
Article
Energy-Saving LED Light Affects the Efficiency of the Photosynthetic Apparatus and Carbohydrate Content in Gerbera jamesonii Bolus ex Hook. f. Axillary Shoots Multiplied In Vitro
by Monika Cioć, Krzysztof Tokarz, Michał Dziurka and Bożena Pawłowska
Biology 2021, 10(10), 1035; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10101035 - 12 Oct 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2299
Abstract
An energy-saving light emitting diode (LED) system allows for adjustment of light quality, which affects plant development and metabolic processes in in vitro cultures. The study investigated the content of endogenous carbohydrates and the condition of the photosynthetic apparatus of Gerbera jamesonii Bolus [...] Read more.
An energy-saving light emitting diode (LED) system allows for adjustment of light quality, which affects plant development and metabolic processes in in vitro cultures. The study investigated the content of endogenous carbohydrates and the condition of the photosynthetic apparatus of Gerbera jamesonii Bolus ex Hook. f. Our aim was to analyze the effects of different LED light qualities—100% red light (R LED), 100% blue (B LED), a mixture of red and blue (7:3) (RB LED), and a fluorescent lamp as a control (Fl)—during the multiplication of axillary shoots. After 40 days, the culture measurements were performed using a non-invasive pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) fluorimeter. Sugar content was assessed with high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Two forms of free monosaccharides (glucose and fructose), two sugar alcohol derivatives (inositol and glycerol), and seven forms of free oligosaccharides were identified. Of those, glucose content was the highest. LEDs did not disturb the sugar metabolism in multiplied shoots. Their monosaccharides were three times more abundant than oligosaccharides; the same results were found in plants grown under control light. R light depleted the performance of the photosynthetic apparatus and caused its permanent damage. The RB LED spectrum ensured the most efficient non-photochemical quenching of the photosystem II (PS II) excitation state and high shoot quality. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological, Biochemical, and Molecular Response in Plants under Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Treatment)
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Review

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11 pages, 998 KiB  
Review
Realising the Environmental Potential of Vertical Farming Systems through Advances in Plant Photobiology
by Matthieu de Carbonnel, John M. Stormonth-Darling, Weiqi Liu, Dmytro Kuziak and Matthew Alan Jones
Biology 2022, 11(6), 922; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11060922 - 16 Jun 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4826
Abstract
Intensive agriculture is essential to feed increasing populations, yet requires large amounts of pesticide, fertiliser, and water to maintain productivity. One solution to mitigate these issues is the adoption of Vertical Farming Systems (VFS). The self-contained operation of these facilities offers the potential [...] Read more.
Intensive agriculture is essential to feed increasing populations, yet requires large amounts of pesticide, fertiliser, and water to maintain productivity. One solution to mitigate these issues is the adoption of Vertical Farming Systems (VFS). The self-contained operation of these facilities offers the potential to recycle agricultural inputs, as well as sheltering crops from the effects of climate change. Recent technological advancements in light-emitting diode (LED) lighting technology have enabled VFS to become a commercial reality, although high electrical consumption continues to tarnish the environmental credentials of the industry. In this review, we examine how the inherent use of electricity by VFS can be leveraged to deliver commercial and environmental benefits. We propose that an understanding of plant photobiology can be used to vary VFS energy consumption in coordination with electrical availability from the grid, facilitating demand-side management of energy supplies and promoting crop yield. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological, Biochemical, and Molecular Response in Plants under Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Treatment)
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