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Antioxidants
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Antioxidants and Age-Related Ocular Diseases
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Antioxidants and Age-Related Ocular Diseases

A special issue of Antioxidants (ISSN 2076-3921). This special issue belongs to the section "Health Outcomes of Antioxidants and Oxidative Stress".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2022) | Viewed by 63144

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Marialaura Amadio

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Section of Pharmacology, Department of Drug Sciences, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy
Interests: pharmacology; ageing; eye diseases; cell stress; cytoprotection; RNA-binding proteins
Dr. Adrian Smedowski

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences in Katowice, Medical University of Silesia, Medyków 18, 40-752 Katowice, Poland
Interests: age-related ocular diseases; retinal pigment epithelium damage

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Evidence in the literature suggests that in ageing there is an imbalance between increased pro-oxidant stress and impaired physiological detoxifying systems. Oxidative stress is a known factor inducing ageing and degeneration, and it is likely involved in the etiopathogenesis of many age-related ocular diseases affecting the retina, optic nerve, or other eye tissues. Indeed, oxidative-stress-induced effects include, but are not limited to, damage to cellular components (nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, organelles); protein aggregation; alteration of metabolism and biochemical processes; activation of signaling cascades linked to stress response, inflammation, and cell death; and changes in the gene expression (at both transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels) or function of enzymes/structural proteins. As such, endogenous detoxifying factors and repair systems play a vital role in maintaining cellular/tissue homeostasis. Accordingly, natural and synthetic molecules acting on the above targets to either counteract oxidative stress or improve protective systems may be of pharmacological interest in contexts featuring elevated oxidative stress.

We invite you to submit your latest original research findings (in vitro, in/ex vivo, and human studies) or a review article relating to any of the mentioned topics to this Special Issue, which will contribute in clarifying the role played by the oxidative stress in the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying age-related ocular pathologies, as well as the relevance of detoxifying endogenous and exogenous factors in eye health and disease.

Prof. Dr. Marialaura Amadio
Dr. Adrian Smedowski
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Antioxidants is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2900 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Aging
  • Eye
  • Ocular disease
  • Oxidative stress
  • Antioxidant
  • Detoxifying
  • Cytoprotection
  • Pharmacological modulation
  • Molecular biology
  • Cell biology
  • Biochemistry

Published Papers (17 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 4012 KiB  
Article
Dimethyl Fumarate Triggers the Antioxidant Defense System in Human Retinal Endothelial Cells through Nrf2 Activation
by Federico Manai and Marialaura Amadio
Antioxidants 2022, 11(10), 1924; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox11101924 - 28 Sep 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2340
Abstract
Dimethyl fumarate (DMF) is a well-known activator of Nrf2 (NF-E2-related factor 2), used in the treatment of psoriasis and multiple sclerosis. The mechanism of action consists in the modification of the cysteine residues on the Nrf2-inhibitor Keap1, thus leading to the dissociation of [...] Read more.
Dimethyl fumarate (DMF) is a well-known activator of Nrf2 (NF-E2-related factor 2), used in the treatment of psoriasis and multiple sclerosis. The mechanism of action consists in the modification of the cysteine residues on the Nrf2-inhibitor Keap1, thus leading to the dissociation of these two proteins and the consequent activation of Nrf2. Considering the paucity of evidence of DMF effects in the context of retinal endothelium, this in vitro study investigated the role of DMF in human retinal endothelial cells (HREC). Here, we show for the first time in HREC that DMF activates the Nrf2 pathway, thus leading to an increase in HO-1 protein levels and a decrease in intracellular ROS levels. Furthermore, this molecule also shows beneficial properties in a model of hyperglucose stress, exerting cytoprotective prosurvival effects. The overall collected results suggest that DMF-mediated activation of the Nrf2 pathway may also be a promising strategy in ocular diseases characterized by oxidative stress. This study opens a new perspective on DMF and suggests its potential repositioning in a broader therapeutical context. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants and Age-Related Ocular Diseases)
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17 pages, 2200 KiB  
Article
Nature-Inspired Hybrids (NIH) Improve Proteostasis by Activating Nrf2-Mediated Protective Pathways in Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells
by Ali Koskela, Federico Manai, Filippo Basagni, Mikko Liukkonen, Michela Rosini, Stefano Govoni, Massimo Dal Monte, Adrian Smedowski, Kai Kaarniranta and Marialaura Amadio
Antioxidants 2022, 11(7), 1385; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox11071385 - 18 Jul 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1900
Abstract
Antioxidant systems play key roles in many elderly diseases, including age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Oxidative stress, autophagy impairment and inflammation are well-described in AMD, especially in retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells. The master regulator of antioxidant defense Nrf2 has been linked to AMD, [...] Read more.
Antioxidant systems play key roles in many elderly diseases, including age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Oxidative stress, autophagy impairment and inflammation are well-described in AMD, especially in retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells. The master regulator of antioxidant defense Nrf2 has been linked to AMD, autophagy and inflammation. In this study, in human ARPE-19 cells, some nature-inspired hybrids (NIH1–3) previously shown to induce Nrf2-mediated protection against oxidative stress were further investigated for their potential against cellular stress caused by dysfunction of protein homeostasis. NIH1–3 compounds increased the expression of two Nrf2-target genes coding defense proteins, HO-1 and SQSTM1/p62, in turn exerting beneficial effects on intracellular redox balance without modification of the autophagy flux. NIH1–3 treatments predisposed ARPE-19 cells to a better response to following exposure to proteasome and autophagy inhibitors, as revealed by the increase in cell survival and decreased secretion of the pro-inflammatory IL-8 compared to NIH-untreated cells. Interestingly, NIH4 compound, through an Nrf2-independent pathway, also increased cell viability and decreased IL-8 secretion, although to a lesser extent than NIH1–3, suggesting that all NIHs are worthy of further investigation into their cytoprotective properties. This study confirms Nrf2 as a valuable pharmacological target in contexts characterized by oxidative stress, such as AMD. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants and Age-Related Ocular Diseases)
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22 pages, 9246 KiB  
Article
Ocular Hypertension Results in Hypoxia within Glia and Neurons throughout the Visual Projection
by Assraa Hassan Jassim, Nana Yaa Nsiah and Denise M. Inman
Antioxidants 2022, 11(5), 888; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox11050888 - 29 Apr 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2336
Abstract
The magnitude and duration of hypoxia after ocular hypertension (OHT) has been a matter of debate due to the lack of tools to accurately report hypoxia. In this study, we established a topography of hypoxia in the visual pathway by inducing OHT in [...] Read more.
The magnitude and duration of hypoxia after ocular hypertension (OHT) has been a matter of debate due to the lack of tools to accurately report hypoxia. In this study, we established a topography of hypoxia in the visual pathway by inducing OHT in mice that express a fusion protein comprised of the oxygen-dependent degradation (ODD) domain of HIF-1α and a tamoxifen-inducible Cre recombinase (CreERT2) driven by a ubiquitous CAG promoter. After tamoxifen administration, tdTomato expression would be driven in cells that contain stabilized HIF-1α. Intraocular pressure (IOP) and visual evoked potential (VEP) were measured after OHT at 3, 14, and 28 days (d) to evaluate hypoxia induction. Immunolabeling of hypoxic cell types in the retina and optic nerve (ON) was performed, as well as retinal ganglion cell (RGC) and axon number quantification at each time point (6 h, 3 d, 14 d, 28 d). IOP elevation and VEP decrease were detected 3 d after OHT, which preceded RGC soma and axon loss at 14 and 28 d after OHT. Hypoxia was detected primarily in Müller glia in the retina, and microglia and astrocytes in the ON and optic nerve head (ONH). Hypoxia-induced factor (HIF-α) regulates the expression of glucose transporters 1 and 3 (GLUT1, 3) to support neuronal metabolic demand. Significant increases in GLUT1 and 3 proteins were observed in the retina and ON after OHT. Interestingly, neurons and endothelial cells within the superior colliculus in the brain also experienced hypoxia after OHT as determined by tdTomato expression. The highest intensity labeling for hypoxia was detected in the ONH. Initiation of OHT resulted in significant hypoxia that did not immediately resolve, with low-level hypoxia apparent out to 14 and 28 d, suggesting that continued hypoxia contributes to glaucoma progression. Restricted hypoxia in retinal neurons after OHT suggests a hypoxia management role for glia. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants and Age-Related Ocular Diseases)
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12 pages, 2081 KiB  
Article
Protective Effect of Ribes nigrum Extract against Blue Light-Induced Retinal Degeneration In Vitro and In Vivo
by Chae Young Shin, Mun-Hoe Lee, Hyeong-Min Kim, Hee-Chul Chung, Do-Un Kim, Jin-Hee Lee and Kwang Won Jeong
Antioxidants 2022, 11(5), 832; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox11050832 - 25 Apr 2022
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2720
Abstract
Although blackcurrant has several health benefits, such as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, its effects on the retina remain unclear. In this study, we investigated the efficacy of black currant extract (BCE) in an in vitro and in vivo model of dry age-related macular [...] Read more.
Although blackcurrant has several health benefits, such as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, its effects on the retina remain unclear. In this study, we investigated the efficacy of black currant extract (BCE) in an in vitro and in vivo model of dry age-related macular degeneration (AMD) induced by blue light. Dry macular degeneration is characterized by the abnormal accumulation of lipofuscin (e.g., N-retinylidene-N-retinylethanolamine, A2E) in the retina. Blue light (BL) significantly decreased the viability of A2E-laden human retinal pigment epithelial cells (ARPE-19). However, BCE treatment protected ARPE-19 cells from A2E and BL. A2E, which is oxidized by blue light, generates reactive oxygen species in RPE cells. Treatment with BCE significantly decreased (80.8%) reactive oxygen species levels induced by A2E and BL in a concentration-dependent manner. BCE inhibited A2E accumulation in ARPE-19 cells and significantly downregulated the expression of genes increased by A2E and BL in ARPE-19 cells. In vivo, oral administration of BCE (25–100 mg/kg) ameliorated ocular lesions of BL-induced retinal damage in a mouse model and rescued the thickness of the whole retina, photoreceptor segment layer, outer nuclear layer, and inner nuclear layer. The decrease in the number of nuclei in the outer nuclear layer induced by BL was also rescued by BCE. Additionally, BCE administration rescued (40.0%) the BL-induced reduction in the expression level of superoxide dismutase 1. Taken together, our results suggest that BCE may have preventive and therapeutic effects on dry AMD through its antioxidant activity and inhibition of lipofuscin accumulation in the retina. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants and Age-Related Ocular Diseases)
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13 pages, 1044 KiB  
Article
Protective Effect of Chrysanthemum boreale Flower Extracts against A2E-Induced Retinal Damage in ARPE-19 Cell
by Min Jung Kim, Dong Hee Kim, Han Sub Kwak, In-Sun Yu and Min Young Um
Antioxidants 2022, 11(4), 669; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox11040669 - 30 Mar 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1826
Abstract
In age-related macular degeneration, N-retinylidene-N-retinylethanolamine (A2E) accumulates in retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells and generates oxidative stress, which further induces cell death. Polyphenols are well known for their antioxidant and beneficial effects on vision. Chrysanthemum boreale Makino (CB) flowers, which [...] Read more.
In age-related macular degeneration, N-retinylidene-N-retinylethanolamine (A2E) accumulates in retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells and generates oxidative stress, which further induces cell death. Polyphenols are well known for their antioxidant and beneficial effects on vision. Chrysanthemum boreale Makino (CB) flowers, which contain flavonoids, have antioxidant activity. We hypothesized that polyphenols in ethanolic extracts of CB (CBE) and its fractions suppressed A2E-mediated ARPE-19 cell damage, a human RPE cell line. CBE is rich in polyphenols, shows antioxidant activity, and suppresses intracellular accumulation of A2E and cell death induced by A2E. Among the five fractions, the polyphenol content and antioxidant effect were in the order of the ethyl acetate fraction (EtOAc) > butanol fraction (BuOH) > hexane fraction (Hex) > dichloromethane fraction (CH2Cl2) > water fraction (H2O). In contrast, the inhibitory ability of A2E accumulation and A2E-induced cell death was highest in H2O, followed by BuOH. In the correlation analysis, polyphenols in the H2O and BuOH fractions had a significant positive correlation with antioxidant effects, but no significant correlation with cell damage caused by A2E. Our findings suggest that substances other than polyphenols present in CBE can suppress the effects of A2E, and further research is needed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants and Age-Related Ocular Diseases)
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16 pages, 3923 KiB  
Article
A Nature-Inspired Nrf2 Activator Protects Retinal Explants from Oxidative Stress and Neurodegeneration
by Maria Grazia Rossino, Rosario Amato, Marialaura Amadio, Michela Rosini, Filippo Basagni, Maurizio Cammalleri, Massimo Dal Monte and Giovanni Casini
Antioxidants 2021, 10(8), 1296; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10081296 - 16 Aug 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2521
Abstract
Oxidative stress (OS) plays a key role in retinal dysfunctions and acts as a major trigger of inflammatory and neurodegenerative processes in several retinal diseases. To prevent OS-induced retinal damage, approaches based on the use of natural compounds are actively investigated. Recently, structural [...] Read more.
Oxidative stress (OS) plays a key role in retinal dysfunctions and acts as a major trigger of inflammatory and neurodegenerative processes in several retinal diseases. To prevent OS-induced retinal damage, approaches based on the use of natural compounds are actively investigated. Recently, structural features from curcumin and diallyl sulfide have been combined in a nature-inspired hybrid (NIH1), which has been described to activate transcription nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor-2 (Nrf2), the master regulator of the antioxidant response, in different cell lines. We tested the antioxidant properties of NIH1 in mouse retinal explants. NIH1 increased Nrf2 nuclear translocation, Nrf2 expression, and both antioxidant enzyme expression and protein levels after 24 h or six days of incubation. Possible toxic effects of NIH1 were excluded since it did not alter the expression of apoptotic or gliotic markers. In OS-treated retinal explants, NIH1 strengthened the antioxidant response inducing a massive and persistent expression of antioxidant enzymes up to six days of incubation. These effects resulted in prevention of the accumulation of reactive oxygen species, of apoptotic cell death, and of gliotic reactivity. Together, these data indicate that a strategy based on NIH1 to counteract OS could be effective for the treatment of retinal diseases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants and Age-Related Ocular Diseases)
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18 pages, 2346 KiB  
Article
Angiotensin II Induces Oxidative Stress and Endothelial Dysfunction in Mouse Ophthalmic Arteries via Involvement of AT1 Receptors and NOX2
by Michael Birk, Ewa Baum, Jenia Kouchek Zadeh, Caroline Manicam, Norbert Pfeiffer, Andreas Patzak, Johanna Helmstädter, Sebastian Steven, Marin Kuntic, Andreas Daiber and Adrian Gericke
Antioxidants 2021, 10(8), 1238; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10081238 - 02 Aug 2021
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2903
Abstract
Angiotensin II (Ang II) has been implicated in the pathophysiology of various age-dependent ocular diseases. The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that Ang II induces endothelial dysfunction in mouse ophthalmic arteries and to identify the underlying mechanisms. Ophthalmic arteries [...] Read more.
Angiotensin II (Ang II) has been implicated in the pathophysiology of various age-dependent ocular diseases. The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that Ang II induces endothelial dysfunction in mouse ophthalmic arteries and to identify the underlying mechanisms. Ophthalmic arteries were exposed to Ang II in vivo and in vitro to determine vascular function by video microscopy. Moreover, the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was quantified and the expression of prooxidant redox genes and proteins was determined. The endothelium-dependent artery responses were blunted after both in vivo and in vitro exposure to Ang II. The Ang II type 1 receptor (AT1R) blocker, candesartan, and the ROS scavenger, Tiron, prevented Ang II-induced endothelial dysfunction. ROS levels and NOX2 expression were increased following Ang II incubation. Remarkably, Ang II failed to induce endothelial dysfunction in ophthalmic arteries from NOX2-deficient mice. Following Ang II incubation, endothelium-dependent vasodilation was mainly mediated by cytochrome P450 oxygenase (CYP450) metabolites, while the contribution of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and 12/15-lipoxygenase (12/15-LOX) pathways became negligible. These findings provide evidence that Ang II induces endothelial dysfunction in mouse ophthalmic arteries via AT1R activation and NOX2-dependent ROS formation. From a clinical point of view, the blockade of AT1R signaling and/or NOX2 may be helpful to retain or restore endothelial function in ocular blood vessels in certain ocular diseases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants and Age-Related Ocular Diseases)
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21 pages, 1657 KiB  
Article
Nutraceutical Supplementation Ameliorates Visual Function, Retinal Degeneration, and Redox Status in rd10 Mice
by Lorena Olivares-González, Sheyla Velasco, Isabel Campillo, David Salom, Emilio González-García, José Miguel Soriano del Castillo and Regina Rodrigo
Antioxidants 2021, 10(7), 1033; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10071033 - 26 Jun 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3455
Abstract
Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is a group of inherited retinal dystrophies characterized by progressive degeneration of photoreceptor cells. Ocular redox status is altered in RP suggesting oxidative stress could contribute to their progression. In this study, we investigated the effect of a mixture of [...] Read more.
Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is a group of inherited retinal dystrophies characterized by progressive degeneration of photoreceptor cells. Ocular redox status is altered in RP suggesting oxidative stress could contribute to their progression. In this study, we investigated the effect of a mixture of nutraceuticals with antioxidant properties (NUT) on retinal degeneration in rd10 mice, a model of RP. NUT was orally administered to rd10 mice from postnatal day (PD) 9 to PD18. At PD18 retinal function and morphology were examined by electroretinography (ERG) and histology including TUNEL assay, immunolabeling of microglia, Müller cells, and poly ADP ribose polymers. Retinal redox status was determined by measuring the activity of antioxidant enzymes and some oxidative stress markers. Gene expression of the cytokines IL-6, TNFα, and IL-1β was assessed by real-time PCR. NUT treatment delayed the loss of photoreceptors in rd10 mice partially preserving their electrical responses to light stimuli. Moreover, it ameliorated redox status and reduced inflammation including microglia activation, upregulation of cytokines, reactive gliosis, and PARP overactivation. NUT ameliorated retinal functionality and morphology at early stages of RP in rd10 mice. This formulation could be useful as a neuroprotective approach for patients with RP in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants and Age-Related Ocular Diseases)
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25 pages, 4246 KiB  
Article
Comparison of Antioxidant Properties of Dehydrolutein with Lutein and Zeaxanthin, and their Effects on Cultured Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells
by Małgorzata B. Różanowska, Barbara Czuba-Pelech, John T. Landrum and Bartosz Różanowski
Antioxidants 2021, 10(5), 753; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10050753 - 10 May 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3279
Abstract
Dehydrolutein accumulates in substantial concentrations in the retina. The aim of this study was to compare antioxidant properties of dehydrolutein with other retinal carotenoids, lutein, and zeaxanthin, and their effects on ARPE-19 cells. The time-resolved detection of characteristic singlet oxygen phosphorescence was used [...] Read more.
Dehydrolutein accumulates in substantial concentrations in the retina. The aim of this study was to compare antioxidant properties of dehydrolutein with other retinal carotenoids, lutein, and zeaxanthin, and their effects on ARPE-19 cells. The time-resolved detection of characteristic singlet oxygen phosphorescence was used to compare the singlet oxygen quenching rate constants of dehydrolutein, lutein, and zeaxanthin. The effects of these carotenoids on photosensitized oxidation were tested in liposomes, where photo-oxidation was induced by light in the presence of photosensitizers, and monitored by oximetry. To compare the uptake of dehydrolutein, lutein, and zeaxanthin, ARPE-19 cells were incubated with carotenoids for up to 19 days, and carotenoid contents were determined by spectrophotometry in cell extracts. To investigate the effects of carotenoids on photocytotoxicity, cells were exposed to light in the presence of rose bengal or all-trans-retinal. The results demonstrate that the rate constants for singlet oxygen quenching are 0.77 × 1010, 0.55 × 1010, and 1.23 × 1010 M−1s−1 for dehydrolutein, lutein, and zeaxanthin, respectively. Overall, dehydrolutein is similar to lutein or zeaxanthin in the protection of lipids against photosensitized oxidation. ARPE-19 cells accumulate substantial amounts of both zeaxanthin and lutein, but no detectable amounts of dehydrolutein. Cells pre-incubated with carotenoids are equally susceptible to photosensitized damage as cells without carotenoids. Carotenoids provided to cells together with the extracellular photosensitizers offer partial protection against photodamage. In conclusion, the antioxidant properties of dehydrolutein are similar to lutein and zeaxanthin. The mechanism responsible for its lack of accumulation in ARPE-19 cells deserves further investigation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants and Age-Related Ocular Diseases)
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16 pages, 3788 KiB  
Article
Urban Aerosol Particulate Matter Promotes Necrosis and Autophagy via Reactive Oxygen Species-Mediated Cellular Disorders that Are Accompanied by Cell Cycle Arrest in Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells
by Hyesook Lee, Da Hye Kim, Jeong-Hwan Kim, Seh-Kwang Park, Ji-Won Jeong, Mi-Young Kim, Seok-Ho Hong, Kyoung Seob Song, Gi-Young Kim, Jin Won Hyun and Yung Hyun Choi
Antioxidants 2021, 10(2), 149; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10020149 - 20 Jan 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2876
Abstract
Urban particulate matter (UPM) is recognized as a grave public health problem worldwide. Although a few studies have linked UPM to ocular surface diseases, few studies have reported on retinal dysfunction. Thus, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the influence [...] Read more.
Urban particulate matter (UPM) is recognized as a grave public health problem worldwide. Although a few studies have linked UPM to ocular surface diseases, few studies have reported on retinal dysfunction. Thus, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the influence of UPM on the retina and identify the main mechanism of UPM toxicity. In this study, we found that UPM significantly induced cytotoxicity with morphological changes in ARPE-19 human retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells and increased necrosis and autophagy but not apoptosis. Furthermore, UPM significantly increased G2/M arrest and simultaneously induced alterations in cell cycle regulators. In addition, DNA damage and mitochondrial dysfunction were remarkably enhanced by UPM. However, the pretreatment with the potent reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) effectively suppressed UPM-mediated cytotoxicity, necrosis, autophagy, and cell cycle arrest. Moreover, NAC markedly restored UPM-induced DNA damage and mitochondrial dysfunction. Meanwhile, UPM increased the expression of mitophagy-regulated proteins, but NAC had no effect on mitophagy. Taken together, although further studies are needed to identify the role of mitophagy in UPM-induced RPE injury, the present study provides the first evidence that ROS-mediated cellular damage through necrosis and autophagy is one of the mechanisms of UPM-induced retinal disorders. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants and Age-Related Ocular Diseases)
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29 pages, 14158 KiB  
Article
Characterization of TGF-β by Induced Oxidative Stress in Human Trabecular Meshwork Cells
by Hsin-Yi Chen, Hsiu-Chuan Chou, Yi-Jung Ho, Shing-Jyh Chang, En-Chi Liao, Yu-Shan Wei, Meng-Wei Lin, Yi-Shiuan Wang, Yu-An Chien, Xin-Ru Yu, Hsiang-Yu Kung, Chu-Chun Yang, Jia-Yu Chen, Hong-Lin Chan and Mei-Lan Ko
Antioxidants 2021, 10(1), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10010107 - 13 Jan 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3254
Abstract
Oxidative stress generated by reactive oxygen species (ROS) plays a critical role in the pathomechanism of glaucoma, which is a multifactorial blinding disease that may cause irreversible damage within human trabecular meshwork cells (HTMCs). It is known that the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) [...] Read more.
Oxidative stress generated by reactive oxygen species (ROS) plays a critical role in the pathomechanism of glaucoma, which is a multifactorial blinding disease that may cause irreversible damage within human trabecular meshwork cells (HTMCs). It is known that the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signaling pathway is an important component of oxidative stress-induced damage related to extracellular matrix (ECM) fibrosis and activates cell antioxidative mechanisms. To elucidate the dual potential roles and regulatory mechanisms of TGF-β in effects on HTMCs, we established an in vitro oxidative model using hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and further focused on TGF-β-related oxidative stress pathways and the related signal transduction. Via a series of cell functional qualitative analyses to detect related protein level alterations and cell fibrosis status, we illustrated the role of TGF-β1 and TGF-β2 in oxidative stress-induced injury by shTGF-β1 and shTGF-β2 knockdown or added recombinant human TGF-β1 protein (rhTGF-β1). The results of protein level showed that p38 MAPK, TGF-β, and its related SMAD family were activated after H2O2 stimulation. Cell functional assays showed that HTMCs with H2O2 exposure duration had a more irregular actin architecture compared to normal TM cells. Data with rhTGF-β1 (1 ng/mL) pretreatment reduced the cell apoptosis rate and amount of reactive oxygen species (ROS), while it also enhanced survival. Furthermore, TGF-β1 and TGF-β2 in terms of antioxidant signaling were related to the activation of collagen I and laminin, which are fibrosis-response proteins. Succinctly, our study demonstrated that low concentrations of TGF-β1 (1 ng/mL) preserves HTMCs from free radical-mediated injury by p-p38 MAPK level and p-AKT signaling balance, presenting a signaling transduction mechanism of TGF-β1 in HTMC oxidative stress-related therapies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants and Age-Related Ocular Diseases)
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14 pages, 3368 KiB  
Article
Effects of Resvega on Inflammasome Activation in Conjunction with Dysfunctional Intracellular Clearance in Retinal Pigment Epithelial (RPE) Cells
by Niina Bhattarai, Niina Piippo, Sofia Ranta-aho, Yashavanthi Mysore, Kai Kaarniranta and Anu Kauppinen
Antioxidants 2021, 10(1), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10010067 - 07 Jan 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3061
Abstract
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is an eye disease in which retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells play a crucial role in maintaining retinal homeostasis and photoreceptors’ functionality. During disease progression, there is increased inflammation with nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich repeat, and Pyrin domain 3 (NLRP3) [...] Read more.
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is an eye disease in which retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells play a crucial role in maintaining retinal homeostasis and photoreceptors’ functionality. During disease progression, there is increased inflammation with nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich repeat, and Pyrin domain 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome activation, oxidative stress, and impaired autophagy in RPE cells. Previously, we have shown that the dietary supplement Resvega reduces reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and induces autophagy in RPE cells. Here, we investigated the ability of Resvega to prevent NLRP3 inflammasome activation with impaired protein clearance in human RPE cells. Cell viability was measured using the lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assays. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) were utilized to determine the secretion of cytokines, NLRP3, and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Caspase-1 activity was measured with a fluorescent labeled inhibitor of caspase-1 (FLICA; FAM-YVAD-FMK) and detected microscopically. Resvega improved the cell membrane integrity, which was evident as reduced LDH leakage from cells. In addition, the caspase-1 activity and NLRP3 release were reduced, as was the secretion of two inflammatory cytokines, interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-8, in IL-1α-primed ARPE-19 cells. According to our results, Resvega can potentially reduce NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated inflammation in RPE cells with impaired protein clearance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants and Age-Related Ocular Diseases)
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19 pages, 2568 KiB  
Article
Properdin Modulates Complement Component Production in Stressed Human Primary Retinal Pigment Epithelium Cells
by Nicole Schäfer, Hannah N. Wolf, Anne Enzbrenner, Juliane Schikora, Maria Reichenthaler, Volker Enzmann and Diana Pauly
Antioxidants 2020, 9(9), 793; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9090793 - 26 Aug 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3682
Abstract
The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) maintains visual function and preserves structural integrity of the retina. Chronic dysfunction of the RPE is associated with retinal degeneration, including age-related macular degeneration (AMD). The AMD pathogenesis includes both increased oxidative stress and complement dysregulation. Physiological sources [...] Read more.
The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) maintains visual function and preserves structural integrity of the retina. Chronic dysfunction of the RPE is associated with retinal degeneration, including age-related macular degeneration (AMD). The AMD pathogenesis includes both increased oxidative stress and complement dysregulation. Physiological sources of oxidative stress in the retina are well known, while complement sources and regulation are still under debate. Using human primary RPE (hpRPE) cells, we have established a model to investigate complement component expression on transcript and protein level in AMD-risk and non-risk hpRPE cells. We evaluated the effect of properdin, a complement stabilizer, on the hpRPE cell-dependent complement profile exposed to oxidative stress. hpRPE cells expressed complement components, receptors and regulators. Complement proteins were also stored and secreted by hpRPE cells. We associated AMD-risk single nucleotide polymorphisms with an increased secretion of complement factors D (CFD) and I (CFI). Furthermore, we detected hpRPE cell-associated complement activation products (C3a, C5a) independent of any extracellularly added complement system. Exogenous properdin increased the mRNA expression of CFI and CFD, but decreased levels of complement components (C1Q, C3), receptors (C3AR, C5AR1, CD11B) and inflammation-associated transcripts (NLRP3, IL1B) in hpRPE cells exposed to oxidative stress. This properdin effect was time-dependently counter regulated. In conclusion, our data unveiled a local, genotype-associated complement component production in hpRPE cells, regulated by exogenous properdin. The local complement production and activation via blood-independent mechanisms can be a new therapeutic target for AMD. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants and Age-Related Ocular Diseases)
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Review

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31 pages, 2186 KiB  
Review
Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress in Age Related Macular Degeneration, Role in Pathophysiology, and Possible New Therapeutic Strategies
by Valentina Bilbao-Malavé, Jorge González-Zamora, Miriam de la Puente, Sergio Recalde, Patricia Fernandez-Robredo, María Hernandez, Alfredo Garcia Layana and Manuel Saenz de Viteri
Antioxidants 2021, 10(8), 1170; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10081170 - 23 Jul 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5467
Abstract
Age related macular degeneration (AMD) is the main cause of legal blindness in developed countries. It is a multifactorial disease in which a combination of genetic and environmental factors contributes to increased risk of developing this vision-incapacitating condition. Oxidative stress plays a central [...] Read more.
Age related macular degeneration (AMD) is the main cause of legal blindness in developed countries. It is a multifactorial disease in which a combination of genetic and environmental factors contributes to increased risk of developing this vision-incapacitating condition. Oxidative stress plays a central role in the pathophysiology of AMD and recent publications have highlighted the importance of mitochondrial dysfunction and endoplasmic reticulum stress in this disease. Although treatment with vascular endothelium growth factor inhibitors have decreased the risk of blindness in patients with the exudative form of AMD, the search for new therapeutic options continues to prevent the loss of photoreceptors and retinal pigment epithelium cells, characteristic of late stage AMD. In this review, we explain how mitochondrial dysfunction and endoplasmic reticulum stress participate in AMD pathogenesis. We also discuss a role of several antioxidants (bile acids, resveratrol, melatonin, humanin, and coenzyme Q10) in amelioration of AMD pathology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants and Age-Related Ocular Diseases)
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18 pages, 2390 KiB  
Review
Glutathione Metabolism and the Novel Role of Mitochondrial GSH in Retinal Degeneration
by Parameswaran G. Sreekumar, Deborah A. Ferrington and Ram Kannan
Antioxidants 2021, 10(5), 661; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10050661 - 24 Apr 2021
Cited by 47 | Viewed by 7618
Abstract
Glutathione (GSH) is present ubiquitously, and its role as a crucial cellular antioxidant in tissues, including the retina, is well established. GSH’s antioxidant function arises from its ability to scavenge reactive oxygen species or to serve as an essential cofactor for GSH S-transferases [...] Read more.
Glutathione (GSH) is present ubiquitously, and its role as a crucial cellular antioxidant in tissues, including the retina, is well established. GSH’s antioxidant function arises from its ability to scavenge reactive oxygen species or to serve as an essential cofactor for GSH S-transferases and peroxidases. This review summarizes the general functions, retinal distribution, disorders linked to GSH deficiency, and the emerging role for mitochondrial GSH (mGSH) in retinal function. Though synthesized only in the cytosol, the presence of GSH in multiple cell organelles suggests the requirement for its active transport across organellar membranes. The localization and distribution of 2-oxoglutarate carrier (OGC) and dicarboxylate carrier (DIC), two recently characterized mitochondrial carrier proteins in RPE and retina, show that these transporters are highly expressed in human retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells and retinal layers, and their expression increases with RPE polarity in cultured cells. Depletion of mGSH levels via inhibition of the two transporters resulted in reduced mitochondrial bioenergetic parameters (basal respiration, ATP production, maximal respiration, and spare respiratory capacity) and increased RPE cell death. These results begin to reveal a critical role for mGSH in maintaining RPE bioenergetics and cell health. Thus, augmentation of mGSH pool under GSH-deficient conditions may be a valuable tool in treating retinal disorders, such as age-related macular degeneration and optic neuropathies, whose pathologies have been associated with mitochondrial dysfunction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants and Age-Related Ocular Diseases)
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21 pages, 3837 KiB  
Review
Oxidative and Nitrosative Stress in Age-Related Macular Degeneration: A Review of Their Role in Different Stages of Disease
by Caterina Toma, Stefano De Cillà, Aurelio Palumbo, Divya Praveen Garhwal and Elena Grossini
Antioxidants 2021, 10(5), 653; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10050653 - 23 Apr 2021
Cited by 35 | Viewed by 4497
Abstract
Although the exact pathogenetic mechanisms leading to age-related macular degeneration (AMD) have not been clearly identified, oxidative damage in the retina and choroid due to an imbalance between local oxidants/anti-oxidant systems leading to chronic inflammation could represent the trigger event. Different in vitro [...] Read more.
Although the exact pathogenetic mechanisms leading to age-related macular degeneration (AMD) have not been clearly identified, oxidative damage in the retina and choroid due to an imbalance between local oxidants/anti-oxidant systems leading to chronic inflammation could represent the trigger event. Different in vitro and in vivo models have demonstrated the involvement of reactive oxygen species generated in a highly oxidative environment in the development of drusen and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) changes in the initial pathologic processes of AMD; moreover, recent evidence has highlighted the possible association of oxidative stress and neovascular AMD. Nitric oxide (NO), which is known to play a key role in retinal physiological processes and in the regulation of choroidal blood flow, under pathologic conditions could lead to RPE/photoreceptor degeneration due to the generation of peroxynitrite, a potentially cytotoxic tyrosine-nitrating molecule. Furthermore, the altered expression of the different isoforms of NO synthases could be involved in choroidal microvascular changes leading to neovascularization. The purpose of this review was to investigate the different pathways activated by oxidative/nitrosative stress in the pathogenesis of AMD, focusing on the mechanisms leading to neovascularization and on the possible protective role of anti-vascular endothelial growth factor agents in this context. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants and Age-Related Ocular Diseases)
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33 pages, 1777 KiB  
Review
Antioxidant Defenses in the Human Eye: A Focus on Metallothioneins
by Ana Álvarez-Barrios, Lydia Álvarez, Montserrat García, Enol Artime, Rosario Pereiro and Héctor González-Iglesias
Antioxidants 2021, 10(1), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10010089 - 11 Jan 2021
Cited by 53 | Viewed by 7481
Abstract
The human eye, the highly specialized organ of vision, is greatly influenced by oxidants of endogenous and exogenous origin. Oxidative stress affects all structures of the human eye with special emphasis on the ocular surface, the lens, the retina and its retinal pigment [...] Read more.
The human eye, the highly specialized organ of vision, is greatly influenced by oxidants of endogenous and exogenous origin. Oxidative stress affects all structures of the human eye with special emphasis on the ocular surface, the lens, the retina and its retinal pigment epithelium, which are considered natural barriers of antioxidant protection, contributing to the onset and/or progression of eye diseases. These ocular structures contain a complex antioxidant defense system slightly different along the eye depending on cell tissue. In addition to widely studied enzymatic antioxidants, including superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, catalase, peroxiredoxins and selenoproteins, inter alia, metallothioneins (MTs) are considered antioxidant proteins of growing interest with further cell-mediated functions. This family of cysteine rich and low molecular mass proteins captures and neutralizes free radicals in a redox-dependent mechanism involving zinc binding and release. The state of the art of MTs, including the isoforms classification, the main functions described to date, the Zn-MT redox cycle as antioxidant defense system, and the antioxidant activity of Zn-MTs in the ocular surface, lens, retina and its retinal pigment epithelium, dependent on the number of occupied zinc-binding sites, will be comprehensively reviewed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidants and Age-Related Ocular Diseases)
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