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Agronomy
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Nitrogen Cycle in Farming Systems
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Nitrogen Cycle in Farming Systems

A special issue of Agronomy (ISSN 2073-4395). This special issue belongs to the section "Soil and Plant Nutrition".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2023) | Viewed by 32571

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Witold Grzebisz

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Guest Editor
Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Environmental Biogeochemistry, Poznan University of Life sciences, Poznan, Poland
Interests: agriculture soil fertility; soil; soil analysis; plant nutrition; fertilizers; sustainable agriculture; crop production; organic farming environment
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Alicja Niewiadomska

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Poznan Univ Life Sci, Dept Gen & Environm Microbiol, Szydlowska 50, PL-60656 Poznan, Poland
Interests: agriculture; soil; microorganisms; interaction between soil microorganisms; soil biodiversity; soil biochemical activity; soil microorganisms and plants; bio-fertilizers; environment protection
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Xuesong Luo

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Key Laboratory of Arable Land Conservation (Middle and Lower Reaches of Yangtze River), Ministry of Agriculture, College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
Interests: soil microbial ecology; nitrogen cycling; antibiotic resistome; heavy metal stabilization by soil microbes
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Xiang Gao

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences, Ohwashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8686, Japan
2. Institute of Agricultural Resources and Regional Planning, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
Interests: root interaction; nitrogen cycle; plant nutrition; nitrous oxide; soil nitrification; biological nitrification inhibition

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues, 

Basic processes governing nitrogen (N) cycling in the soil/plant system are well recognized. The impact of N2 fixation, and pairs of reversible processes such as mineralization and immobilization, nitrification, and denitrification, on N cycling in diverse ecosystems is well described. In agriculture, N is the main driver of biomass production and its partitioning between plant parts during growth. 

The human impact on the N cycle is a result of numerous activities, frequently interacting with each other. The basis of agriculture production, irrespective of the geographical and climatic differences, is the cropping sequence, affecting N supply to plants. The content of available N to the currently grown plant, in spite of the type and amount of applied N fertilizers, is only partly controlled by a farmer. 

The low efficiency of N applied in fertilizers is due to a lack of synchrony during the growing season between requirements for N, and the plant capacity to its effective transformation into yield. The first step in the sound management of N on a particular field, and on the farm, is to recognize the weakest point of the N transformation chain. This is the basis for developing a set of measures for the existing N gap amelioration.

The main aim of the Special Issue entitled “Nitrogen Cycle in Farming Systems” is to present the newest solutions in nitrogen management in diverse farming systems, subsequently leading to fulfilling twin objectives of the sustainable intensification of agriculture, i.e., food production, using efficiently non-renewable resources, without disturbance of the environment.

Scope of the Special Issue:

1) Nitrogen budgeting and cycle in farming systems in different climatic zones:

  1. tropic, b. humid, c. dry;

2) Nitrogen budgeting and cycle in diverse farming systems:

  1. crop farming systems;
  2. mixed crop–livestock systems;
  3. extensive farming systems;
  4. industrialized farming—plantation;

3) Effect of organic and mineral N carriers on:

  1. activity of soil microorganisms;
  2. structure and transformation pathways of soil N compounds;
  3. soil N compounds as indicators of N availability to crop plants;

4) In-season nitrogen balance in fields with diverse cropping composition;

5) Critical stages of the crop plant’s requirements for nitrogen;

6) A comparison of bio-fertilizers (recycled organic nitrogen fertilizers) with mineral N carriers;

7) Effect of a synchrony of the simultaneous application of organic fertilizers with mineral N fertilizers on N efficiency.

Prof. Dr. Witold Grzebisz
Prof. Dr. Alicja Niewiadomska
Dr. Xuesong Luo
Dr. Xiang Gao
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Agronomy is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • farm
  • field
  • crop plants
  • cropping sequence
  • N requirements
  • N sources
  • N balance
  • N recycling

Published Papers (16 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

8 pages, 216 KiB  
Editorial
Nitrogen Cycle in Farming Systems
by Witold Grzebisz and Alicja Niewiadomska
Agronomy 2024, 14(1), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14010089 - 29 Dec 2023
Viewed by 696
Abstract
The challenge for people currently living on Earth is to develop a food production strategy to cover the food gap and at the same time maintain or even improve the soil use production potential [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nitrogen Cycle in Farming Systems)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

13 pages, 4113 KiB  
Article
Influence of Sediment, Plants, and Microorganisms on Nitrogen Removal in Farmland Drainage Ditches
by Chenyao Guo, Qisen Zhang, Yawei Hu, Qiang Zhao, Qiangkun Li and Jingwei Wu
Agronomy 2023, 13(9), 2211; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13092211 - 24 Aug 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 758
Abstract
The removal of nitrogen from water is a consequence of the synergistic action of plant uptake, sediment sorption, and microbial decomposition. However, there is a lack of long-term experimental studies on the effects of each component in the process of nitrogen removal. In [...] Read more.
The removal of nitrogen from water is a consequence of the synergistic action of plant uptake, sediment sorption, and microbial decomposition. However, there is a lack of long-term experimental studies on the effects of each component in the process of nitrogen removal. In this study, we investigated the effect of sediment, plants, and microorganisms on nitrogen removal by setting up three systems: water–sterilized sediment, water–sediment, and water–sediment–plant. The nitrogen removal effect followed the following rank order of effectiveness: the “water–sediment–plant” system > the “water–sediment” system > the “water–sterilized sediment” system. The ditch sediment had a strong enrichment effect for nitrogen. In addition, the migration rate of nitrogen in the sediment with different depths was different. The ammonia-nitrogen migration rate in the sediment showed an increasing trend with time and depth. The nitrate-nitrogen migration process in the sediment showed a trend of enrichment toward the middle layer (15.0–25.0 cm). Aquatic plants and microorganisms can promote the removal of nitrogen in water, with the average purification rates of 13.92% and 19.92%, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nitrogen Cycle in Farming Systems)
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12 pages, 272 KiB  
Article
Effect of Polymer-Coated Urea/Urea Blends on Corn Yields under Short Growing Season Conditions in Eastern Canada
by Ashraf Mohammad-Shareef Tubeileh, Shamel M. Alam-Eldein and Scott Banks
Agronomy 2023, 13(3), 695; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13030695 - 27 Feb 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2379
Abstract
Polymer-coated urea (PCU) was developed to better synchronize nitrogen (N) supply with crop needs and reduce N losses. The objective of this work was to evaluate the effects of different N rates prepared using combinations of urea and ESN (PCU) on corn ( [...] Read more.
Polymer-coated urea (PCU) was developed to better synchronize nitrogen (N) supply with crop needs and reduce N losses. The objective of this work was to evaluate the effects of different N rates prepared using combinations of urea and ESN (PCU) on corn (Zea mays L.), grain yield, yield components, in-season nutritional status, and residual soil N. Field experiments were conducted on two sites in eastern Ontario (Canada); Kemptville (sandy loam) and Winchester (clay-loam), and repeated over three years (2011–2013). A total of ten treatments were applied using combinations of three N rates (50, 100, and 150 kg N ha−1) and three fertilizer proportions (100% urea, 75:25 urea:ESN, and 60:40 urea:ESN) for each rate. The tenth treatment consisted of a non-fertilized control (0 N). Grain yield was significantly affected by N source, N rate, site, and year. There was no significant effect of the N source in most sites/years. In the wetter season 2013, treatment 100N60:40 in the sandy site produced a similar yield to treatments receiving 150 kg N ha−1. In the clay-loam site, the 150N75:25 treatment had a yield advantage of 11–12% compared with straight urea. Chlorophyll index generally increased with the higher N application rate. The other grain parameters were little affected by the N rate or source. Soil residual mineral N tended to increase with ESN blends at 100 and 150 kg N ha−1 compared with straight urea. Our findings indicate that replacing a portion of urea with PCU might save N in lighter soils prone to leaching especially in wet years without affecting yields. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nitrogen Cycle in Farming Systems)
15 pages, 8219 KiB  
Article
Critical Factors Affecting Water and Nitrogen Losses from Sloping Farmland during the Snowmelt Process
by Qiang Zhao, Jifeng Zhang, Jingwei Wu, Chenyao Guo, Chengeng Li, Yawen Liu, Rui Zhang and Hang Zhao
Agronomy 2023, 13(2), 350; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13020350 - 26 Jan 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1123
Abstract
Water and nitrogen losses from farmland during the snowmelt process play a vital role in water and nitrogen management in cold regions. To explore the mechanisms and factors contributing to water and nitrogen loss from different sloping farmlands during the snowmelt period, field [...] Read more.
Water and nitrogen losses from farmland during the snowmelt process play a vital role in water and nitrogen management in cold regions. To explore the mechanisms and factors contributing to water and nitrogen loss from different sloping farmlands during the snowmelt period, field experiments were conducted under two slope treatments (8° and 15°), two soil water content (SWC) treatments, and two snow water equivalent (SWE) (5 mm and 10 mm) treatments in a seasonal freezing agricultural watershed of Northeast China. The results showed that during the snowmelt process, SWE was the most important factor affecting water and nitrogen production through the surface and total runoff of the sloping farmland, followed by the slope. The water and nitrogen yield in the high snow (HS) treatments ranged from 1.76 to 8.15 and 1.65 to 12.62 times higher than those in the low snow (LS) treatments. The generation of nitrogen was advanced compared with that of water induced by the preferential production of nitrogen. A higher slope promoted this preferential production function of nitrogen. Enhanced infiltration combined with the preferential yield of nitrogen resulted in a greatly decreased yield of water and nitrogen in the gentle slope and LS (GS_LS) treatments. These findings are valuable for accurately describing the water and nitrogen cycling in seasonally freezing sloping farmland. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nitrogen Cycle in Farming Systems)
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25 pages, 3225 KiB  
Article
Yield Predictive Worth of Pre-Flowering and Post-Flowering Indicators of Nitrogen Economy in High Yielding Winter Wheat
by Witold Szczepaniak, Witold Grzebisz and Jarosław Potarzycki
Agronomy 2023, 13(1), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13010122 - 30 Dec 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1444
Abstract
Indicators of nitrogen economy in winter wheat during vegetative development are a reliable tool for yield prognosis. This hypothesis was verified in a field experiment, carried out in the 2013/2014, 2014/2015, and 2015/2016 seasons. The field experiment, in a two-factor split-plot design, included [...] Read more.
Indicators of nitrogen economy in winter wheat during vegetative development are a reliable tool for yield prognosis. This hypothesis was verified in a field experiment, carried out in the 2013/2014, 2014/2015, and 2015/2016 seasons. The field experiment, in a two-factor split-plot design, included the following systems of wheat protection (CFP): (i) N + micronutrients, (ii) N + fungicides, (iii) N + micronutrients + fungicides; and N rates: 0, 40, 80, 120, 160, 200, 240 kg N ha−1. The content and accumulation of N in wheat at the beginning of stem elongation and at heading were used for grain density and yield prediction. In the grain-filling phase, the stem N acted as a buffer, stabilizing yield at a high level. The condition for such action was the stem N equilibrium with the ear N at flowering. The N depletion from the leaves during the grain-filling period significantly depended on the grain density. The post-flowering uptake of N by wheat was affected by the grain density, which was affected by the N reserves in the stem. Yield forecast based on pre-flowering indices of nitrogen economy in cereals affects both agronomic decisions aimed at correcting the nutritional status of plants, and farm economics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nitrogen Cycle in Farming Systems)
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10 pages, 7725 KiB  
Article
Long-Term Organic Manure Application Alters Urease Activity and Ureolytic Microflora Structure in Agricultural Soils
by Li Wang and Xiang Xiong
Agronomy 2022, 12(12), 3018; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12123018 - 29 Nov 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1156
Abstract
Ureolytic microbes in soil produce urease to catalyze the hydrolysis of urea to NH3/NH4+. Manure is widely applied in agriculture and has the potential to influence soil urease activity. In this study, we examined the responses of the [...] Read more.
Ureolytic microbes in soil produce urease to catalyze the hydrolysis of urea to NH3/NH4+. Manure is widely applied in agriculture and has the potential to influence soil urease activity. In this study, we examined the responses of the ureolytic microbial community to manure application in two agricultural soils from north (N) and south (S) China using high-throughput sequencing of the ureC genes. We found that N soil and S soil harbored significantly distinct ureolytic communities, as no OTU was shared between two locations. The slight variation of the ureolytic community (32.2%, Adonis) was observed in N soil where low rates of manure were applied. However, dramatic alteration of the structure of ureolytic community (83.4%, Adonis) was found, possibly by promoting the growth of Betaproteobacteria and Deltaproteobacteria and the suppression of the growth of Actinobacteria in S soil where high rates of manure were inputted. The total C and C/N ratio were the main environmental factors driving the microbial communities. The relative ratios of ureC to 16S rRNA genes ranged from 1.5 to 3.5% among the two soils. The abundance of ureC genes was significantly and positively correlated with total phosphorus (TP, r = 0.87, p < 0.001). Positive correlations between the urease activity and soil available NH4+ (r = 0.81, p = 0.001), TP (r = 0.84, p = 0.001), and the abundance of ureC (r = 0.87, p < 0.001) were observed in our study. We speculate that sufficient soil phosphorus promotes the growth of ureolytic microbes, which results in higher urease activity and the greater release of available NH4+. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nitrogen Cycle in Farming Systems)
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16 pages, 2572 KiB  
Article
How Stand Age Affects Soil Nitrification and Nitrogen Gas Emissions in Tropical and Subtropical Tea Plantations
by Ruijie Tang, Yujie Hu, Tianyi Hu, Yan Zhao, Yanzheng Wu and Lei Meng
Agronomy 2022, 12(10), 2521; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12102521 - 16 Oct 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1241
Abstract
Tea plants prefer NH4+-N to NO3−-N, and thus nitrification would be detrimental to the N uptake of tea. However, the effects of different stand ages on nitrification and nitrogen oxide (NO and N2O) emissions in [...] Read more.
Tea plants prefer NH4+-N to NO3−-N, and thus nitrification would be detrimental to the N uptake of tea. However, the effects of different stand ages on nitrification and nitrogen oxide (NO and N2O) emissions in tropical and subtropical regions remain unclear. We performed an incubation experiment with tea field soils from different stand ages (5, 15, and 30 years) under different water contents in subtropical (Changsha, Hunan; C5L, C15L, C30L, C5H, C15H, C30H) and tropical regions (Baisha, Hainan; B5L, B15L, B30L, B5H, B15H, B30H). The results showed that the highest net nitrification rate was in C15L and B15. The results indicated that there was more NO3−-N loss in the 15-y tea field soil in both regions. The highest nitrogen oxide emissions from the subtropical and tropical plots were in C15H and B30H. Available K was the key variable for NO and N2O emissions in Changsha county, whereas SOM, pH, and available P were the key factors affecting NO and N2O emissions in Baisha county. Our findings suggest that more attention should be paid to NO3−-N loss in middle-aged (10–30 years) tea fields. Similarly, the focus should be given to nitrogen oxide emissions from middle-aged tea plantations in subtropical regions and old tea plantations (≥30 stand years) in tropical regions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nitrogen Cycle in Farming Systems)
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12 pages, 1262 KiB  
Communication
Response of Nitrifier and Denitrifier Abundance to Salinity Gradients in Agricultural Soils at the Yellow River Estuary
by Daqing Huang, Xiang Li and Xuesong Luo
Agronomy 2022, 12(7), 1642; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12071642 - 08 Jul 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1561
Abstract
Salinization is considered a threat to agricultural soil and decreases crop yield worldwide. Nitrification and denitrification are the core processes of soil N-cycle. However, the response of nitrifiers and denitrifiers to salinity in agricultural soils remains ambiguous. The study aimed to explore the [...] Read more.
Salinization is considered a threat to agricultural soil and decreases crop yield worldwide. Nitrification and denitrification are the core processes of soil N-cycle. However, the response of nitrifiers and denitrifiers to salinity in agricultural soils remains ambiguous. The study aimed to explore the effect of salinity on nitrifiers and denitrifiers communities in agricultural soils along a naturally occurring salinity gradient. The effects of salinity on the abundance, composition, and interactions of nitrifiers and denitrifiers in surface soils were investigated. The abundance of nitrifiers significantly decreased in response to the increase in salinity. Ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) were more susceptible to salinity elevation than ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB). Nitrospira and Nitrobacter showed a similar trend to the salinity gradient, but the relative abundance of Nitrobacter was increased in the saline soils. High salinity decreased the abundance of napA and nirK, but had no significant effect on other marker genes for denitrification. Besides electrical conductivity, total sulfur (TS)+available potassium (AK) and TN+TS+C/N+total phosphorus (TP)+AK significantly explained the variation in denitrifier and nitrifier communities. We also found that high salinity decreased the connections between different N functional genes. These results implied the alteration of the nitrogen cycling community by high salinity mainly through decreasing AOA, NOB, and some denitrifiers with nitrate or nitrite reduction potentials and weakening the connectivity between nitrogen cycling drivers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nitrogen Cycle in Farming Systems)
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12 pages, 1475 KiB  
Article
The Effect of the Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria and Companion Red Clover on the Total Protein Content and Yield of the Grain of Spring Barley Grown in a System of Organic Agriculture
by Anna Płaza, Alicja Niewiadomska, Rafał Górski, Robert Rudziński and Emilia Rzążewska
Agronomy 2022, 12(7), 1522; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12071522 - 24 Jun 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2909
Abstract
Field research was conducted in Poland from 2019–2021 to determine the effect of the bacteria Azospirillumlipoferum Br17 and Azotobacter chroococcum, as well as companion red clover on the total protein content and yield in the grain of spring barley cultivated in [...] Read more.
Field research was conducted in Poland from 2019–2021 to determine the effect of the bacteria Azospirillumlipoferum Br17 and Azotobacter chroococcum, as well as companion red clover on the total protein content and yield in the grain of spring barley cultivated in a system of organic agriculture. Two factors were examined in the field experiment: I. bacterial formulations: 1—control, 2—nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Azospirillumlipoferum Br17, Azotobacter chroococcum), 3—nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Azospirillumlipoferum Br17, Azotobacter chroococcum) + phosphorus-releasing bacteria (Bacillus megaterium var. phosphaticum, Arthrobacter agilis), and 4—nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Azotobacter chroococcum) + plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) (Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, Pseudomonas fluorescens); II. companion crop: control without a companion crop, red clover, and red clover + Italian ryegrass. In spring barley grain, the total protein content was determined and the total protein yield was calculated. The obtained study results demonstrated that the growing season conditions significantly affected the total protein content and yield in the spring barley grain. The highest total protein content was recorded in the grain of spring barley following an application of nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Azotobacter chroococcum) combined with PGPR (Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas fluorescens) and grown with companion red clover. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nitrogen Cycle in Farming Systems)
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15 pages, 1994 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Nitrogen Uptake in Winter Wheat Using Sensor and Satellite Data for Site-Specific Fertilization
by Matthias Stettmer, Franz-Xaver Maidl, Jürgen Schwarzensteiner, Kurt-Jürgen Hülsbergen and Heinz Bernhardt
Agronomy 2022, 12(6), 1455; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12061455 - 17 Jun 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2313
Abstract
Sensor- and satellite-based determination of nitrogen uptake provides critical data in site-specific fertilization algorithms. Therefore, two basic noncontact measurement methods (sensor and satellite) were investigated in winter wheat, and their precision was evaluated in this study. Nitrogen uptake at four characteristic growth stages [...] Read more.
Sensor- and satellite-based determination of nitrogen uptake provides critical data in site-specific fertilization algorithms. Therefore, two basic noncontact measurement methods (sensor and satellite) were investigated in winter wheat, and their precision was evaluated in this study. Nitrogen uptake at four characteristic growth stages (BBCH 31, BBCH 39, BBCH 55, and BBCH 65) was determined using algorithms based on sensor and satellite data. As a reference, nitrogen uptake was determined using biomass samples in the laboratory (ground truth data). The precision of the tested methods was evaluated using statistical indicators (mean, median, minimum, maximum, and standard deviation) and correlation analyses between the nitrogen uptake of the ground truth data and that of the respective method. The results showed moderate to strong correlations with the nitrogen uptake of the ground truth data for both methods (R2 = 0.57–0.83). Both sensor and satellite data best represented nitrogen uptake in BBCH 39 and 55 (R2 = 0.63–0.83). In sum, there were only slight deviations in the absolute amount of nitrogen uptake (≤±15%). Clear deviations can be explained by external influences during measurement. Overall, the investigations showed that the nitrogen uptake could be appropriately determined as a data basis for site-specific fertilization systems using sensor and satellite data. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nitrogen Cycle in Farming Systems)
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15 pages, 4025 KiB  
Article
Potential Nitrogen Mineralization and Its Availability in Response to Long-Term Fertilization in a Chinese Fluvo-Aquic Soil
by Ali Akbar Maitlo, Shuiqing Zhang, Waqas Ahmed, Kamlesh Jangid, Sehrish Ali, Hongbo Yang, Saleem Maseeh Bhatti, Yinghua Duan and Minggang Xu
Agronomy 2022, 12(6), 1260; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12061260 - 24 May 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2345
Abstract
The determination of organic nitrogen (N) mineralization is crucial for estimating N availability, quantifying exogenous inputs, and estimating associated environmental impacts. The objective of this study was to explore the effect of long-term various fertilization on soil organic N mineralization potential (NMP), which [...] Read more.
The determination of organic nitrogen (N) mineralization is crucial for estimating N availability, quantifying exogenous inputs, and estimating associated environmental impacts. The objective of this study was to explore the effect of long-term various fertilization on soil organic N mineralization potential (NMP), which influences plant N accessibility. Treatments from a 26-year long-term field experiment with no fertilization (CK), chemical fertilizer N at 165 kg N ha−1 and P at 82.5 kg P2O5 ha−1 (NP), NP with K fertilizer at 165, 82.5, 82.5 kg ha−1 N, P2O5 and K2O (NPK), NPK at 165, 82.5, 82.5 kg ha−1 N, P2O5 and K2O with manure at 7857.14 kg ha−1 (NPKM), and NPKM at 165, 82.5, 82.5 kg ha−1 N, P2O5 and K2O with manure at 1.5× application rate (11,785.71 kg ha−1) (1.5NPKM) were examined for potentially mineralizable N by aerobic incubation at 35 °C for 30 weeks. Three pools (Pools I, II, and III) of mineralizable N were recognized. Pool I, the mineralization flush on rewetting in the first 2 weeks; Pool II, gross N mineralization between weeks 2 and 30; and Pool III, the potentially mineralizable N, predicted from the fitted curve, that did not mineralize during the incubation period. Soil microbial biomass carbon (SMBC) and N (SMBN) as well as fixed ammonium (NH4+) contents and relationship with N mineralization rate (k) were also studied. Long-term manure application yielded a significantly higher k (0.32 week−1) than other treatments (0.12–0.22 week−1) but not a significantly higher NMP. Nitrogen mineralization during the wheat and maize-growing seasons was predicted to be 8.7–26.3 (mg N kg−1 soil) and 25.9–42.1 (mg N kg−1 soil), respectively. Both labile mineralizable N pools (Pools I and II) followed the same patterns in the treatments: 1.5NPKM > NPKM > NPK > NP > CK, while the reverse was true for stable N (Pool III). The significant positive correlation between k with SMBC and SMBN (R2 = 0.93, p = 0.008 and R2 = 0.94, p = 0.006) suggested that the higher mineralization rate might be contributed by the higher soil microbial biomass in NPKM. The trends of fixed NH4+ and mineralized N were coupled. Long-term manure application significantly improved the N mineralization rate in soil. Manure application is an effective strategy to enhance soil microbial biomass and soil N availability and has the potential to reduce the dependence upon chemical N fertilization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nitrogen Cycle in Farming Systems)
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17 pages, 1084 KiB  
Article
Dense Planting with Reducing Nitrogen Rate Increased Nitrogen Use Efficiency and Translocated Nitrogen in Grains in Double-Cropped Rice
by Zhuo Luo, Haixing Song, Min Huang, Zhenhua Zhang, Zhi Peng, Zhichang Yang, Tao Shen and Gongwen Luo
Agronomy 2022, 12(5), 1090; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12051090 - 29 Apr 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1654
Abstract
Nitrogen fertilization and planting density are two key factors that influence the yield of rice. Reducing nitrogen fertilizer input and increasing planting density will help to improve nitrogen use efficiency and stabilize yield. Field and 15N tracer method in plot experiments were [...] Read more.
Nitrogen fertilization and planting density are two key factors that influence the yield of rice. Reducing nitrogen fertilizer input and increasing planting density will help to improve nitrogen use efficiency and stabilize yield. Field and 15N tracer method in plot experiments were conducted to study the trends of yield, nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) and nitrogen transfer of hybrid rice and conventional rice under dense planting with a reduced nitrogen rate (DPRN) and sparse planting with a high nitrogen rate (SPHN). Among the nitrogen in rice plants, the proportion of nitrogen from fertilizer under the DPRN was reduced by 1.8–13%. The late-season rice (LSR) had a higher rate of decrease compared with the early-season rice (ESR). The uptake efficiency of nitrogen fertilizer was significantly higher under the DPRN than that under the SPHN, with an increase of 7.7–21.9%. The accumulated nitrogen and translocated ratio under the DPRN before the heading stage were 6.1–10.8% and 2.0–9.6% higher than those under the SPHN, respectively. The yield did not change under different treatments. Those findings suggest that the DPRN could guarantee a stabilized yield while increasing the NUE and the amount of translocated nitrogen in the double-cropped rice system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nitrogen Cycle in Farming Systems)
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17 pages, 3382 KiB  
Article
Responses of N2O Production and Abundances of Associated Microorganisms to Soil Profiles and Water Regime in Two Paddy Soils
by Jichao Zuo, Hongqing Hu, Qingling Fu, Jun Zhu, Heng Zheng, Minghao Mo and Anguo Tu
Agronomy 2022, 12(3), 743; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12030743 - 20 Mar 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2046
Abstract
Soil moisture is one of the critical factors affecting N2O emissions. The water regime affects the physical and chemical properties of paddy soil in different soil layers, which, in turn, affects N2O emissions and microbial growth. However, there are [...] Read more.
Soil moisture is one of the critical factors affecting N2O emissions. The water regime affects the physical and chemical properties of paddy soil in different soil layers, which, in turn, affects N2O emissions and microbial growth. However, there are few reports on the effects of different soil layers and soil moisture conditions on N2O emission characteristics and microbial mechanisms. A 21-day microcosm experiment was performed to research the effects of soil moisture levels (60%, 100%, and 200% water holding capacity, WHC) and different soil layers (0–10, 10–20, and 20–40 cm) on N2O emissions in hydromorphic and gleyed paddy soils. Function microbes involved in nitrification and denitrification were determined by quantitative PCR. Moreover, the abiotic variables pH, Eh, and exchangeable Fe2+, Fe3+, NH4+-N, and NO3−-N were also analyzed. Results showed that N2O emissions of gleyed paddy soil were significantly higher than that of hydromorphic paddy soil, which was consistent with the result of the abundance of nitrifier and denitrifier in the two paddy soils. Soil depth, water content, and their interaction significantly affected N2O emission (p < 0.05). Cumulative emissions of N2O from each layer of the two paddy soils at 100% and 200% WHC were significantly higher than that under 60% WHC (p < 0.05). N2O emissions decreased significantly with the increase of soil depth (p < 0.05), which was consistent with the change in the abundance of soil nitrifier (AOB and AOA) and denitrifier (nirK and nosZ) function genes with soil depth. The abundance of AOB, AOA, and nirK and nosZ genes decreased significantly with soil depth (p < 0.05), but did not respond significantly to the water regime. Based on the results of redundancy analysis, the contents of Fe2+ and Fe3+ were positively correlated with N2O emissions and the abundance of AOB, AOA, and nirK and nosZ genes. These results indicate that N2O emissions and the abundance of associated microbes are selectively affected by soil moisture and soil layers in the two paddy soils. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nitrogen Cycle in Farming Systems)
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24 pages, 1864 KiB  
Article
Improvement of Nitrogen-Fertilizer Recommendation by Consideration of Long-Term Site and Cultivation Effected Mineralization
by Dietmar Meyer and Hartmut Kolbe
Agronomy 2021, 11(12), 2492; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11122492 - 08 Dec 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2574
Abstract
Organic matter (OM) and nutrient nitrogen (N) play vital roles in the fertility and production of soil in accordance with goals of efficient environmental protection. This study aimed to show the extent to which N delivery can contribute to improving nitrogen fertilizer requirements [...] Read more.
Organic matter (OM) and nutrient nitrogen (N) play vital roles in the fertility and production of soil in accordance with goals of efficient environmental protection. This study aimed to show the extent to which N delivery can contribute to improving nitrogen fertilizer requirements (NFR) through comparative analysis of OM and N. Systems determining the NFR in agricultural practices have thus far been challenged to estimate the annual rate of mineralization of the soil. OM and N turnover was investigated through an available evaluation consisting of 546 representatively distributed permanent test and observation plots (TP) of the German Federal State of Saxony farms. A solid database of at least 10-year field plot card records from 2001 to 2010 was selected for the analysis. A program (BEFU) widely used in agricultural practice, along with the simplified process model CCB, were applied. For the calculation of the amount of mineral N fertilizers used, the results of three different methods for determining the NFR were compared with each other. The determination of the farmers’ demand (=actual condition of the TP) with a mean value of 132 kg N ha−1 did not show a large difference between the calculated values with 137 kg N ha−1 by the BEFU program. Based on the available results for the most important crop species cultivated in Saxony, there were clear differences in the considerations of the N delivery from the soil. The BEFU program was able to calculate an average N delivery of 17 kg N ha−1 from tabulated data, whereas with the CCB process model, 66 kg N ha−1 of mineralization was determined with a distinct higher deviation by taking into account the 10-year field histories. Using the N delivery of the TP by the CCB model, a clear reduction of the mean N fertilization level, to about 80 kg N ha−1, was therefore achieved. These differences were particularly large for TP with organic fertilization (livestock), at a relatively low N fertilization level, and for certain crop species. With a high standard deviation, the average savings potential of mineral N fertilizers was 52–57 kg N ha−1. After including the corrected values for the N mineral fertilization, a decrease in the N balances by an average of 20–25 kg N ha−1 was ultimately achieved. In particular, the heavily oversupplied plots with D and E classification decreased by approximately 50%. The results of our study demonstrate clear improvements; therefore, increased efforts should be made in the future to optimize the determination of NFR using applicable methods that consider N mineralization in agricultural practice and consultation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nitrogen Cycle in Farming Systems)
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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

30 pages, 58913 KiB  
Review
Deficiencies of Secondary Nutrients in Crop Plants—A Real Challenge to Improve Nitrogen Management
by Witold Grzebisz, Waldemar Zielewicz and Katarzyna Przygocka-Cyna
Agronomy 2023, 13(1), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13010066 - 25 Dec 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3000
Abstract
Secondary nutrient (e.g., calcium, magnesium, sulfur) deficiencies in crop plants disturb the nitrogen balance in the plants, thus reducing the overall yield. This hypothesis was analyzed based on the physiological functions of these nutrients, in relation to the uptake and utilization of N, [...] Read more.
Secondary nutrient (e.g., calcium, magnesium, sulfur) deficiencies in crop plants disturb the nitrogen balance in the plants, thus reducing the overall yield. This hypothesis was analyzed based on the physiological functions of these nutrients, in relation to the uptake and utilization of N, in crop plants. Nitrogen uptake by plants requires a well-developed root system, the size of which depends on the supply of calcium. This process is largely controlled by the content of toxic aluminum in the soil, which can be mitigated through the application of lime and/or gypsum. In humid climates, the excessive uptake of calcium by plants occurs during water shortages; this process significantly interferes with N uptake. Magnesium, which affects plant growth throughout the growing season, can effectively control excessive calcium uptake. Magnesium deficiency can be ameliorated with soil- or foliar-applied fertilizers. These stages define the timing of plant sampling and determination of the N:S ratio, as an indicator of plant nutritional status. The application of Mg, S, or MgS facilitates higher productivity of fertilizer N by narrowing the N:Mg and N:S ratios in plants. The use of secondary nutrients can allow farmers to obtain high yields while reducing both production costs and environmental risks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nitrogen Cycle in Farming Systems)
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29 pages, 3600 KiB  
Review
Nitrogen Hotspots on the Farm—A Practice-Oriented Approach
by Witold Grzebisz, Alicja Niewiadomska and Katarzyna Przygocka-Cyna
Agronomy 2022, 12(6), 1305; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12061305 - 29 May 2022
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2467
Abstract
The proactive management of nitrogen (N) on a farm is the best way to protect the environment against N pollution. The farm is the basic business unit, where simple and low-cost methods of identifying and ameliorating weaknesses (nitrogen hotspots) in the N-flow [...] Read more.
The proactive management of nitrogen (N) on a farm is the best way to protect the environment against N pollution. The farm is the basic business unit, where simple and low-cost methods of identifying and ameliorating weaknesses (nitrogen hotspots) in the N-flow chain can be applied. The basis for the effective use of mineral N fertilizers (Nf) is the farmer’s knowledge of the farm’s own N resources, their quantity, and the potential availability for growing crops. These resources include both primary sources of N (N2 fixed by legumes) and those that are recyclable, which include crop byproducts and manure. On the other hand, crop requirements must be accurately quantified to exploit the yield potential of the crop varieties grown on the farm. The basic challenge for the farmer is to maximize the use efficiency of the N resources. In this regard, the farmer has two diagnostic tools available to recognize nitrogen hotspots and to quantify N resources. These are (1) the N balance method (difference between the N inputs and outputs), which allows for a surplus or deficiencies in the N-flow between farm units (fields, livestock housing) to be identified, and (2) the nitrogen gap, which is based on the amount of Nf applied and the yield of a given crop. It is possible to calculate the maximum attainable yield as well as identify the fields on the farm that require a correction of N management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nitrogen Cycle in Farming Systems)
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