Research

Jump to: Review

11 pages, 1264 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dependency of Crops on Pollinators and Pollination Deficits: An Approach to Measurement Considering the Influence of Various Reproductive Traits

by Ujjwal Layek, Nitol Krishna Baghira, Alokesh Das, Arijit Kundu and Prakash Karmakar

Agriculture 2023, 13(8), 1563; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13081563 - 04 Aug 2023

Viewed by 1722

Abstract

Pollinators provide crucial ecosystem services, i.e., pollination, which determines crops’ reproductive fitness and yield. As pollinators decline, flowering crops might face pollination-deficit stress depending on their dependence on pollinators and pollinator availability. Here, we assessed the dependency of some crops (belonging to diverse [...] Read more.

Pollinators provide crucial ecosystem services, i.e., pollination, which determines crops’ reproductive fitness and yield. As pollinators decline, flowering crops might face pollination-deficit stress depending on their dependence on pollinators and pollinator availability. Here, we assessed the dependency of some crops (belonging to diverse plant families) on biotic pollinators based on their maximum reproductive potential in a supplementary pollination treatment and minimum reproductive success in a pollinator exclusion treatment. Additionally, we determined the pollen transfer limitation of the crops in open field conditions. We also determined the influence of the different reproductive traits with the index of dependency of crops on pollinators (IDP) and the coefficient of pollination deficit (D). Based on the values of IDP, members of Cucurbitaceae are obligatorily dependent on pollinators for their fruit set. Members of Brassicaceae and Rutaceae are highly reliant on pollinators. A few crops, like Lablab purpureus and Nigella sativa, are less dependent on pollinators. In open field conditions, most crops have a low pollination deficit, some without pollen transfer limitations, and only a few crops (Citrus × limon and Citrus maxima) show a higher pollination deficit. The IDP is negatively influenced by the pollen–ovule ratio, which also negatively affects the pollination deficit of the crops. This study will be useful in understanding and mitigating the effects of pollinator losses, as well as in choosing crops (those under pollination deficit stress and largely dependent on pollinators for fruit set) for supplemental pollination services to increase agricultural production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green and Sustainable Agricultural Ecosystem)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 1429 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Agricultural Green Development Based on Gini Coefficient and Hesitation Fuzzy Multi-Attribute Decision-Making: The Case of China

by Min Wan, Haibo Kuang, Yanbo Yang, Bi He, Sue Zhao, Ying Wang and Jingyi Huo

Agriculture 2023, 13(3), 699; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13030699 - 17 Mar 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1452

Abstract

In order to systematically solve the problem of formulating agricultural green development strategies based on the four dimensions of policy green, industry green, science and technology green, and awareness green, this paper uses the method of combining the Gini coefficient with hesitation fuzzy [...] Read more.

In order to systematically solve the problem of formulating agricultural green development strategies based on the four dimensions of policy green, industry green, science and technology green, and awareness green, this paper uses the method of combining the Gini coefficient with hesitation fuzzy multi-attribute decision-making to carry out research. The research shows that: (1) The three most critical factors affecting the green development of agriculture are “consumers’ awareness of purchasing green agricultural products”, “investment in the construction of rural ecological civilization” and “the number of farmers’ scientific and technological training”, and the corresponding index weights are 0.12, 0.1 and 0.1, respectively. (2) There are differences in policy, industry, science and technology, and consciousness in the green development of agriculture. The green development of policy shows an obvious upward trend. The industrial green development shows a relatively gentle upward trend. The green development of science and technology showed rapid growth from 2011 to 2017, and the growth slowed down in the following two years and showed a downward trend in 2020. The awareness of green development shows a relatively stable upward trend. (3) The green development of agriculture is jointly driven by the relevant interests of the supply side, the demand side, and the regulator, and the demand side’s requirements for high-quality agricultural products become a stronger driving force for the green development of agriculture. The change in the consciousness and thinking of agricultural product producers on the supply side has become the basis for the green development of agriculture, and the implementation of government policies has become an important guarantee for the green development of agriculture. The innovation of this paper is to build an evaluation index system including government, consumers, farmers’ awareness of multiple subjects, government policies at all levels, industrial production status, and agricultural production technology. At the same time, we build an evaluation model that can comprehensively analyze quantitative and qualitative indicators. In view of the need for a holistic analysis of the agricultural system in the study of agricultural green development, future studies will include air pollution emissions and agricultural transport services in the evaluation model to improve the scientific and universal model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green and Sustainable Agricultural Ecosystem)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 1090 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Agronomic Parameters and Nutritional Composition on Red and Green Amaranth Species Grown in Open Field Versus Greenhouse Environment

by Gudani Millicent Managa and Lufuno Ethel Nemadodzi

Agriculture 2023, 13(3), 685; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13030685 - 15 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2136

Abstract

Previously, researchers have not paid attention to indigenous African leafy vegetables such as nightshade and kale, however, amaranth species have recently gained popularity due to their adaptability to various climatic conditions and their cultivation in both open fields and hydroponics. Amaranth species are [...] Read more.

Previously, researchers have not paid attention to indigenous African leafy vegetables such as nightshade and kale, however, amaranth species have recently gained popularity due to their adaptability to various climatic conditions and their cultivation in both open fields and hydroponics. Amaranth species are ranked among the underutilized leafy vegetables with medicinal properties, economic values, nutritional and health benefits. This study aimed to compare the growth parameters and nutritional composition of two consumed red (Amaranthus Cruentus L.) and green (Amaranthus Graecizans L.) amaranth species in South Africa, cultivated in an open field versus a greenhouse. The findings showed a high chlorophyll content and large leaf area under open field conditions on red and green species. The number of leaves and stem height were higher in the greenhouse cultivation system. In open field cultivation, minerals such as calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, iron, zinc, aluminium, copper and manganese for both species were significantly higher whilst potassium, sodium, boron, sulphur were significantly higher in the greenhouse production. The sufficient total nitrogen and ash were recorded in the open field production, and no significant difference was observed between the open field and greenhouse on moisture and ash content of A. Cruentus. In conclusion, A. Cruentus and A. Graecizansn grown in an open field had higher proximate and mineral composition over the greenhouse cultivation system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green and Sustainable Agricultural Ecosystem)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 2562 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficiency of Combed Straw Harvesting Technology Involving Straw Decomposition in the Soil

by Serhii Halko, Oleksandr Vershkov, Jakub Horák, Oleksandr Lezhenkin, Larysa Boltianska, Anatolii Kucher, Olena Suprun, Oleksandr Miroshnyk and Vitalii Nitsenko

Agriculture 2023, 13(3), 655; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13030655 - 10 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1363

Abstract

This article deals with the problem of harvesting combed straw by mixing it with the soil and the process of combed straw decomposition in particular. The idea and purpose of the research are also analysed in terms of circular economy, which represents a [...] Read more.

This article deals with the problem of harvesting combed straw by mixing it with the soil and the process of combed straw decomposition in particular. The idea and purpose of the research are also analysed in terms of circular economy, which represents a closed cycle. Combed straw is seen as a by-product which is reused as fertilizer to increase soil fertility, thus reducing the negative impact on the environment and increasing the efficiency of organic matter use. To analyse the qualitative aspect of the process, the introduction of an indicator is proposed—the straw decomposition coefficient. Experimental studies of straw decomposition in the soil were carried out using the mathematical theory of experimental design, where the response function is represented by the functional dependence of the straw decomposition coefficient on the length of its cutting and nitrogen and phosphorus application doses. For experimental studies, Box–Behnken design was used, which made it possible to calculate the regression coefficients by known formulas. Verification of the obtained coefficients according to Student’s t-test showed that all of them were significant. According to Fisher’s test, it was established that the model is adequate and can be used for further research. As determined by the experimental study, shredded straw incorporation improves soil properties and increases its biological activity. Ultimately, this improves plant nutrition and increases crop yields. The experiment results showed that reduced amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers can be applied, thus leading to a reduction in the direct production costs of growing cereals in the following year. The integration of several technological processes, such as straw cutting, shredding, and incorporating it into the soil with simultaneous application of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers, increases the economic efficiency of grain production and a shortens the payback period for investment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green and Sustainable Agricultural Ecosystem)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 2155 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Physicochemical Test Kit for On-Farm Measurement of Nutrients in Liquid Organic Manures

by Max-Frederik Piepel and Hans-Werner Olfs

Agriculture 2023, 13(2), 477; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13020477 - 16 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1081

Abstract

Optimised use of liquid organic manures (LOM) can reduce the consumption of mineral fertilisers and help reduce the emission of nutrients into nonagricultural ecosystems. To achieve this, farmers need to be able to measure the greatly variable nutrient composition of LOMs as accurately [...] Read more.

Optimised use of liquid organic manures (LOM) can reduce the consumption of mineral fertilisers and help reduce the emission of nutrients into nonagricultural ecosystems. To achieve this, farmers need to be able to measure the greatly variable nutrient composition of LOMs as accurately as possible on-farm. Since existing on-farm test methods either need to be precisely adapted to each LOM type or take a long time to perform, a test kit was developed to measure the nutrients of different LOM types within a short time. For the study, 619 LOMs (391 pig slurries, 139 cattle slurries, and 89 digestates) were collected from farms in northwest Germany and analysed in the laboratory for total N, ammonium, phosphorus, and potassium. The samples were analysed in parallel using the on-farm test kit consisting of ion-selective ammonium and potassium electrodes and an automatic moisture analyser to evaluate the comparability of the data. Each measurement could be performed in less than 15 min. Regardless of LOM type, regressions with an R² > 0.9 could be generated for total nitrogen, ammonium, and potassium, while the models for phosphorus were not as reliable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green and Sustainable Agricultural Ecosystem)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 1571 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Gender on the Link between Personality Traits and Entrepreneurial Intention: Implications for Sustainable Agriculture

by Ibrahim A. Elshaer and Abu Elnasr E. Sobaih

Agriculture 2023, 13(2), 454; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13020454 - 15 Feb 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1829

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to test the moderating effect of gender on the relationship between the Big Five personality traits of agriculture and food science senior students and their entrepreneurial intention. For this purpose, the study employed an online survey, which [...] Read more.

The purpose of this study is to test the moderating effect of gender on the relationship between the Big Five personality traits of agriculture and food science senior students and their entrepreneurial intention. For this purpose, the study employed an online survey, which was directed to senior students in the agriculture and food science program at four public universities in Saudi Arabia. Out of the 450 forms distributed, 410 provided usable responses for analysis. This process yielded an answer ratio of 91%. The findings of PLS-SEM showed that the Big Five personality traits have a significant positive influence on students’ intent toward entrepreneurship, except for neuroticism, which was found to have a negative but insignificant influence. The results of moderating effect analysis showed no significant moderating influences of gender on the link between two traits, i.e., agreeableness and neuroticism and entrepreneurship intention. On the other side, gender was found to have a significant moderating role in the relationship between the four other traits, extraversion, conscientiousness, openness to experiences, and entrepreneurial intention. Male students have a more moderating influence in relation to extraversion and conscientiousness than females do on entrepreneurial intention, whereas female students have a more moderating influence regarding openness to experiences than males on entrepreneurship intention. The results confirm that to ensure a sustainable agriculture ecosystem, each gender should receive appropriate development programs to strengthen their personal traits to stimulate entrepreneurial intention. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green and Sustainable Agricultural Ecosystem)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 776 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Industrial Sotol Production in Mexico—A Life Cycle Assessment

by Juan Manuel Madrid-Solórzano, Jorge Luis García-Alcaraz, Eduardo Martínez Cámara, Julio Blanco Fernández and Emilio Jiménez Macías

Agriculture 2022, 12(12), 2159; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12122159 - 15 Dec 2022

Viewed by 1728

Abstract

Sotol is a distilled spirit made in the north of Mexico produced from the wild plant Dasylirion wheeleri. Although sotol was awarded the Designation of Origin (DO) in 2002 and has an economic influence on the DO region, its environmental profile has [...] Read more.

Sotol is a distilled spirit made in the north of Mexico produced from the wild plant Dasylirion wheeleri. Although sotol was awarded the Designation of Origin (DO) in 2002 and has an economic influence on the DO region, its environmental profile has not been determined. For that reason, this paper reports a Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) of the industrial sotol production process in the Mexican state of Chihuahua to determine any significant environmental impacts caused by sotol production from raw material acquisition to the packaging stage. The LCA was modeled using SimaPro 8.5.2 software (PRé Sustainability, Amersfoort, The Netherlands) and the environmental impacts were calculated using the CML-IA baseline v3.03/EU25 impact assessment technique. The findings reveal that sotol beverage manufacturing considerably affects three of the eleven impact categories selected and that the harvesting and bottling stages have the greatest negative environmental impact of all the sotol production stages. According to empirical data, one bottle (750 mL) of sotol results in a higher carbon dioxide value than any other spirit evaluated in earlier LCA studies, with white, rested, and aged sotol generating 5.07, 5.12, and 5.13 kg CO₂ eq, respectively. Other drinks, such as mescal, classic gin, and whisky generate only 1.7, 0.91, and 2.25 kg CO₂ eq, respectively. In conclusion, sotol distillery companies should start to decrease road transport of raw materials used in the packaging stage and begin to cultivate sotol instead of extracting it from the wild as strategies to achieve cleaner production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green and Sustainable Agricultural Ecosystem)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 2189 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sorghum-Based Power Generation in Southern Ukraine: Energy and Environmental Assessment

by Valerii Havrysh, Vitalii Nitsenko and Vasyl Hruban

Agriculture 2022, 12(12), 2148; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12122148 - 14 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1713

Abstract

An increase in energy demand, fossil fuel reserves depletion, and environmental issues are primary reasons for renewable energy use, including power generation. Bioenergy is the primary alternative to conventional hydrocarbon fuels. Biomass-based power generation is increasing due to some reasons, including a gradual [...] Read more.

An increase in energy demand, fossil fuel reserves depletion, and environmental issues are primary reasons for renewable energy use, including power generation. Bioenergy is the primary alternative to conventional hydrocarbon fuels. Biomass-based power generation is increasing due to some reasons, including a gradual decrease in the levelized cost of electricity and a reduction of carbon dioxide emissions. Sorghum is a promising energy crop for semi-arid climate zones, including southern Ukraine. It can be used for both biofuel production and power generation. However, there is a lack of methodology for energy and environmental assessments of sorghum-based power generation. Some possible technologies were analyzed. The novelty of this study is the accounting of energy consumed and carbon dioxide emissions during crop cultivation. We have determined that sorghum-based power plants can generate from 2 to 12 MWh per hectare. Their operation significantly reduces carbon dioxide emissions (from 613 to 3652 kg of carbon dioxide per hectare of sorghum silage cultivation). Sorghum-based biogas plants have energy and environmental advantages if they use co-generation technologies and utilize digestate as a biofertilizer. The utilization of digestate (obtained from silage production per hectare) substitutes up to 12.8 MWh of indirect energy. The results obtained can be used by farmers and authorities for bioenergy development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green and Sustainable Agricultural Ecosystem)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Review

Jump to: Research

49 pages, 733 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Journey of 1000 Leagues towards the Decontamination of the Soil from Heavy Metals and the Impact on the Soil–Plant–Animal–Human Chain Begins with the First Step: Phytostabilization/Phytoextraction

by Cristina Hegedus, Simona-Nicoleta Pașcalău, Luisa Andronie, Ancuţa-Simona Rotaru, Alexandra-Antonia Cucu and Daniel Severus Dezmirean

Agriculture 2023, 13(3), 735; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13030735 - 22 Mar 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1831

Abstract

Nowadays, there are a multitude of sources of heavy metal pollution which have unwanted effects on this super organism, the soil, which is capable of self-regulation, but limited. Living a healthy life through the consumption of fruits and vegetables, mushrooms, edible products and [...] Read more.

Nowadays, there are a multitude of sources of heavy metal pollution which have unwanted effects on this super organism, the soil, which is capable of self-regulation, but limited. Living a healthy life through the consumption of fruits and vegetables, mushrooms, edible products and by-products of animal origin, honey and bee products can sometimes turn out to be just a myth due to the contamination of the soil with heavy metals whose values, even if they are below accepted limits, are taken up by plants, reach the food chain and in the long term unbalance the homeostasis of the human organism. Plants, these miracles of nature, some with the natural ability to grow on polluted soils, others needing a little help by adding chelators or amendments, can participate in the soil detoxification of heavy metals through phytoextraction and phytostabilization. The success of soil decontamination must take into account the collaboration of earth sciences, pedology, pedochemistry, plant physiology, climatology, the characteristics of heavy metals and how they are absorbed in plants, and in addition how to avoid the contamination of other systems, water or air. The present work materialized after extensive bibliographic study in which the results obtained by the cited authors were compiled. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green and Sustainable Agricultural Ecosystem)

16 pages, 1449 KiB

Open AccessReview

Urban Gardening in a Changing Climate: A Review of Effects, Responses and Adaptation Capacities for Cities

by Francisco Tomatis, Monika Egerer, Adriana Correa-Guimaraes and Luis Manuel Navas-Gracia

Agriculture 2023, 13(2), 502; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13020502 - 20 Feb 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 8458

Abstract

Climate change is impacting the ecological, social and technological aspects of urban gardens. Gardens experience threats (e.g., water scarcity) but are also responding through adaptation strategies (e.g., selecting drought-resilient plants). A synthetic overview of how urban gardens are affected by climate change and [...] Read more.

Climate change is impacting the ecological, social and technological aspects of urban gardens. Gardens experience threats (e.g., water scarcity) but are also responding through adaptation strategies (e.g., selecting drought-resilient plants). A synthetic overview of how urban gardens are affected by climate change and responding to climate change is unclear. Here, we systematically reviewed articles and book chapters published in the last two decades (2000–2022) to illustrate the relationship between climate change and urban gardening. From 72 documents analyzed with Nvivo Software, we found that there has been an increase in academic publications. Universities from the US (14) and Germany (9) universities are the dominant producers. Evidence shows that climate change can have negative impacts on cities, people and urban food. Suggestions on how to build the adaptation capacity of urban gardens include collecting rainwater, changing plant selection, changing planting times, applying vegetative cover on the soil and other practices. For cities, community and allotment gardens are helpful for adaptation, mitigation and resilience. This includes the capacity to regulate the microclimate, to reduce urban heat island effects and to buffer urban floods, the power to capture carbon, the ability to create social networks and other socio-environmental benefits for urban climate planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green and Sustainable Agricultural Ecosystem)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 2401 KiB

Open AccessReview

Eco-Friendly Biocontrol Strategies of Alternaria Phytopathogen Fungus: A Focus on Gene-Editing Techniques

by Domingo Cesar Carrascal-Hernández, Edwin Flórez-López, Yeimmy Peralta-Ruiz, Clemencia Chaves-López and Carlos David Grande-Tovar

Agriculture 2022, 12(10), 1722; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12101722 - 19 Oct 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2512

Abstract

Agricultural food production is greatly affected by postharvest diseases worldwide, such as the diseases caused by Alternaria species, which are very common in several crops. The management of fungal infections around the world largely relies on fungicides. In this context, the control of [...] Read more.

Agricultural food production is greatly affected by postharvest diseases worldwide, such as the diseases caused by Alternaria species, which are very common in several crops. The management of fungal infections around the world largely relies on fungicides. In this context, the control of diseases such as early blight caused by Alternaria solani in potatoes and Alternaria linariae in tomatoes has mainly consisted of the application of fungicides, with negative impacts on the environment and human health. Recently, the application of ‘omics’ and gene editing through the CRISPR/Cas9 system and RNAi technologies demonstrated their effectiveness as emerging greener alternatives for controlling phytopathogenic fungi. Additionally, coatings based on essential oils and microbial antagonists suggest alternative strategies for controlling phytopathogenic fungi that are respectful of the environment. This review presents an exhaustive literature review focused on using greener alternatives to the traditional management of postharvest diseases associated with Alternaria species, such as inhibiting pathogenicity from their phytopathogenic genes using gene editing based on CRISPR/Cas9 and RNAi technologies. The review also presents coatings based on essential oils and microbial antagonists as greener strategies for Alternaria control. Biological processes of maximum efficiency can replace chemical methods for controlling phytopathogenic fungi, preserving healthy conditions in agricultural lands and ecosystems. This is possible with the rise of ‘omic’ technologies, the CRISPR/Cas9 tool, and RNAi technology. Greener control methods of Alternaria fungi can increase agricultural production, improving the economy and global health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green and Sustainable Agricultural Ecosystem)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

26 pages, 2823 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Sustainable Agro-Food Systems for Addressing Climate Change and Food Security

by Akila Wijerathna-Yapa and Ranjith Pathirana

Agriculture 2022, 12(10), 1554; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12101554 - 26 Sep 2022

Cited by 41 | Viewed by 13748

Abstract

Despite world food production keeping pace with population growth because of the Green Revolution, the United Nations (UN) State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022 Report indicates that the number of people affected by hunger has increased to 828 million [...] Read more.

Despite world food production keeping pace with population growth because of the Green Revolution, the United Nations (UN) State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022 Report indicates that the number of people affected by hunger has increased to 828 million with 29.3% of the global population food insecure, and 22% of children under five years of age stunted. Many more have low-quality, unhealthy diets and micronutrient deficiencies leading to obesity, diabetes, and other diet-related non-communicable diseases. Additionally, current agro-food systems significantly impact the environment and the climate, including soil and water resources. Frequent natural disasters resulting from climate change, pandemics, and conflicts weaken food systems and exacerbate food insecurity worldwide. In this review, we outline the current knowledge in alternative agricultural practices for achieving sustainability as well as policies and practices that need to be implemented for an equitable distribution of resources and food for achieving several goals in the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. According to the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, animal husbandry, particularly ruminant meat and dairy, accounts for a significant proportion of agricultural greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and land use but contributes only 18% of food energy. In contrast, plant-based foods, particularly perennial crops, have the lowest environmental impacts. Therefore, expanding the cultivation of perennials, particularly herbaceous perennials, to replace annual crops, fostering climate-smart food choices, implementing policies and subsidies favoring efficient production systems with low environmental impact, empowering women, and adopting modern biotechnological and digital solutions can help to transform global agro-food systems toward sustainability. There is growing evidence that food security and adequate nutrition for the global population can be achieved using climate-smart, sustainable agricultural practices, while reducing negative environmental impacts of agriculture, including GHG emissions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green and Sustainable Agricultural Ecosystem)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Green and Sustainable Agricultural Ecosystem

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editors

Special Issue Information

Keywords

Published Papers (12 papers)

Research

Review

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI