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Editor’s Choice Articles

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

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16 pages, 2228 KiB  
Article
The Survival of Family Farms: Socioemotional Wealth (SEW) and Factors Affecting Intention to Continue the Business
by Manel Plana-Farran and José Luis Gallizo
Agriculture 2021, 11(6), 520; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11060520 - 03 Jun 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5968
Abstract
This article addresses the problem of succession in family farms in a context of generational change. Family businesses are characterized by their long-term orientation and by having a positive effect through environmental goals that remain in place generation after generation. The general increase [...] Read more.
This article addresses the problem of succession in family farms in a context of generational change. Family businesses are characterized by their long-term orientation and by having a positive effect through environmental goals that remain in place generation after generation. The general increase in average age among farmers is seen as a barrier to more sustainable land use, and the survival of family farming therefore depends on the availability of a successor in the family. Socioemotional wealth (hereafter, SEW) is understood as the affective endowment of family members. This study adopts the SEW dimensions conceptually validated to analyse the effects of psychological and socioeconomic factors on potential successors’ intentions. The results of a survey administered to students attending agricultural schools in Catalonia show that intentions to assume the management and ownership of the family farm increase in line with individuals’ interest in creating their own business, their ability to take over the farm, and their emotional inclination to continue the family legacy. In addition, SEW was measured in relation to the potential successor and not the incumbent, as has typically been the case in previous work, bringing this important research subject as a principal actor. Finally, an empirical validation of a short FIBER scale, i.e., REI scale, was obtained that relates individuals’ intentions to succeed the family farm to the socioemotional wealth of business families, testing suitability of the REI scale as a measure of intention to succeed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Changes on Family Farms in Developed, Developing and Transition Economies)
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13 pages, 1615 KiB  
Article
Wide–Narrow Row Planting Pattern Increases Root Lodging Resistance by Adjusting Root Architecture and Root Physiological Activity in Maize (Zea mays L.) in Northeast China
by Shengqun Liu, Shulian Jian, Xiangnan Li and Yang Wang
Agriculture 2021, 11(6), 517; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11060517 - 03 Jun 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2463
Abstract
Root lodging (RL) in maize can reduce yield and grain quality. A wide–narrow row planting pattern can increase maize yield in the growing regions of northeastern China, but whether it can improve RL resistance is not clear. Therefore, in this study, the root [...] Read more.
Root lodging (RL) in maize can reduce yield and grain quality. A wide–narrow row planting pattern can increase maize yield in the growing regions of northeastern China, but whether it can improve RL resistance is not clear. Therefore, in this study, the root architecture distribution, root physiological activity, and root lodging rate under planting pattern 1 (uniform ridge of 65 cm, east–west ridge direction) and pattern 2 (wide–narrow rows, 40 double narrow rows and 90 wide rows, north–south ridge direction) were studied. The results showed that the RL rate under pattern 2 was significantly lower than that under pattern 1. The number and diameter of nodal roots on the upper node, the root failure moment, and the root bleeding sap intensity at the 3 weeks after VT under pattern 2 were significantly higher than those under pattern 1. Root length density in the 0–40 cm soil layer tended to be inter-row distributed. Therefore, the RL resistance of maize under pattern 2 was increased through an adjustment in the root architecture distribution and root physiological activity in northeastern China. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Crop Protection, Diseases, Pests and Weeds)
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14 pages, 5568 KiB  
Article
Modal Analysis and Experiment of a Lycium barbarum L. Shrub for Efficient Vibration Harvesting of Fruit
by Jian Zhao, Satoru Tsuchikawa, Te Ma, Guangrui Hu, Yun Chen, Zhiwei Wang, Qingyu Chen, Zening Gao and Jun Chen
Agriculture 2021, 11(6), 519; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11060519 - 03 Jun 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2524
Abstract
The most common harvesting method of Lycium barbarum L. (L. barbarum) is manual harvesting, resulting in low efficiency and high cost. Meanwhile, the efficiency of vibration harvesting, which is considered an efficient mechanical harvesting method, can be significantly improved if the [...] Read more.
The most common harvesting method of Lycium barbarum L. (L. barbarum) is manual harvesting, resulting in low efficiency and high cost. Meanwhile, the efficiency of vibration harvesting, which is considered an efficient mechanical harvesting method, can be significantly improved if the optimized resonance frequency of the shrub can be obtained. To vibration harvest fruit efficiently, a 3D model of the shrub was established based on measurements of the shape parameters, and material mechanics models of the branches were established based on physical tests. The modal analysis of the shrub based on finite element method (FEM) simulation was performed to obtain the range of resonance frequency, and the modal experiment of the shrub using acceleration sensors and an impact hammer was conducted to obtain the accurate resonance frequency. Based on the results of the modal analysis and experiment, the optimized resonance frequency was determined to be 2 Hz. The field experiment showed that the fruit fell off when the branches were vibrated at this frequency. The results provide the design basis for the efficient vibration harvesting of L. barbarum. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Pre- and Post-harvest Handling of Fruits and Vegetables to Preserve Quality and Reduce Loss and Waste)
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16 pages, 320 KiB  
Article
The Digitalization of the European Agri-Food Cooperative Sector. Determining Factors to Embrace Information and Communication Technologies
by Javier Jorge-Vázquez, Mª Peana Chivite-Cebolla and Francisco Salinas-Ramos
Agriculture 2021, 11(6), 514; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11060514 - 02 Jun 2021
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 5050
Abstract
The digitization of the agri-food sector is a strategic priority in the political agenda of European institutions. The opportunity to improve the competitiveness and efficiency of the sector offered by new technologies comes together with its potential to face new economic and environmental [...] Read more.
The digitization of the agri-food sector is a strategic priority in the political agenda of European institutions. The opportunity to improve the competitiveness and efficiency of the sector offered by new technologies comes together with its potential to face new economic and environmental challenges. This research aims to analyze the level of digitalization of the European agri-food cooperative sector from the construction of a composite synthetic index. Such an index is to be based on a diverse set of variables related to electronic commerce and the services offered through the internet. It also evaluates how European cooperatives influence the degree of technological adoption depending on their size or the wealth of the country where they carry out their activity. The empirical analytical method is thus used, through the analysis of frequencies and correlations. The results obtained reveal the existence of a suboptimal and heterogeneous degree of digitization of European agri-food cooperatives, clearly conditioned by their size and the wealth of the country where they operate. In this situation, it is recommended to promote public policies that guarantee high-performance digital connectivity, an improvement in training in digital skills and the promotion of cooperative integration processes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Cooperative in the Face of the Challenges of Globalization, Sustainability and Digitalization)
12 pages, 9838 KiB  
Article
Influence of Emitter Structure on Its Hydraulic Performance Based on the Vortex
by Cuncai Wang, Zhiqin Li and Juanjuan Ma
Agriculture 2021, 11(6), 508; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11060508 - 30 May 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2122
Abstract
The rectangular labyrinth emitter is taken as the study object in this article, as we added internal teeth to vortex-free and vortex areas in its lateral channel or lengthened the vertical channel, to change the channel structure. Using the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) [...] Read more.
The rectangular labyrinth emitter is taken as the study object in this article, as we added internal teeth to vortex-free and vortex areas in its lateral channel or lengthened the vertical channel, to change the channel structure. Using the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method simulates the water flow field, to get the relationship between flow rate and pressure, and the vortexes distribution in channel. The aim of this study is to explore the reasons for the influence of structural change on hydraulic performance of the emitter through the analysis of vortex intensity and its distribution from the perspective of the vortex. The results show that the relative error of simulated results and experimental data was 1.02–2.11%. Adding internal teeth to vortex-free areas in lateral channel can improve hydraulic performance of the emitter; adding them to vortex areas can reduce it. The increase in vortex number and intensity in flow field is the internal reason for the improvement of the emitter’s hydraulic performance. The channel structure changes promote the formation of a larger velocity gradient, and the increase in the velocity gradient in flow field exacerbates vortex formation. Changing channel structure to improve the emitter’s hydraulic performance can promote an increase in the number and intensity of vortexes in the channel. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future of Irrigation in Agriculture)
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13 pages, 1845 KiB  
Article
Screen Oilseed Rape (Brassica napus) Suitable for Low-Loss Mechanized Harvesting
by Yiren Qing, Yaoming Li, Lizhang Xu and Zheng Ma
Agriculture 2021, 11(6), 504; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11060504 - 30 May 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2767
Abstract
The main reason for the massive loss of rapeseed in mechanized harvesting is the mismatch between the harvester requirements and the pod shatter resistance and plant branching characteristics. Low pod resistance, entanglement caused by excessive branches, and inconsistent pod maturity are primary mismatch [...] Read more.
The main reason for the massive loss of rapeseed in mechanized harvesting is the mismatch between the harvester requirements and the pod shatter resistance and plant branching characteristics. Low pod resistance, entanglement caused by excessive branches, and inconsistent pod maturity are primary mismatch problems. However, studies on rape characteristics by integrating agricultural machinery and agronomy are limited. A total of 15 varieties were planted for research from 2016 to 2018. In this paper, the Two-Degree-of-Freedom (2-DOF) collision method was adopted to evaluate the pod shatter resistance taken from the field, and the plant agronomic characteristics and their correlation were investigated. In 2020, a screened variety of C6009 with higher shatter resistance and suitable plant features for mechanized harvesting was planted in large areas and harvested by machines for verification. The test results demonstrated that the compact plant varieties with high branches might be more favorable for yield and shatter resistance. The field harvest loss of the screened variety was significantly less than that of the control group. It provides a reliable reference for agronomic experts in terms of rape variety improvement and agricultural machinery experts regarding the optimization of rape harvesters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Crop Production)
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19 pages, 1052 KiB  
Article
Livelihood Adaptation of Rural Households under Livelihood Stress: Evidence from Sichuan Province, China
by Xue Yang, Shili Guo, Xin Deng and Dingde Xu
Agriculture 2021, 11(6), 506; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11060506 - 30 May 2021
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3757
Abstract
The welfare of many poor and low-income rural households is vulnerable to earthquakes and secondary geological disasters. The academic literature, however, pays little attention to the livelihood pressure, adaptability, and livelihood strategies of these households. Based on the survey data of 327 rural [...] Read more.
The welfare of many poor and low-income rural households is vulnerable to earthquakes and secondary geological disasters. The academic literature, however, pays little attention to the livelihood pressure, adaptability, and livelihood strategies of these households. Based on the survey data of 327 rural households in the Wenchuan and Lushan earthquake-stricken areas in the Sichuan Province, the livelihood pressure, adaptability, and livelihood strategy characteristics of rural households were analyzed, and the disordered multi-classification logistic regression model was constructed to explore the correlation between the above-mentioned variables. The results show that: (1) Rural households face the greatest economic pressure and the least social pressure; rural households have the strongest adaptability in social capital and the lowest adaptability in financial capital. The proportion of rural households that chose the aid livelihood strategy was the highest, while the proportion of rural households that chose the adjustment livelihood strategy was the lowest. (2) Compared with the expanded livelihood strategy, (a) When the health pressure is higher, the rural households are more inclined to choose the expanded livelihood strategy, followed by the contractive livelihood strategy and, finally, the aid livelihood strategies; (b), the higher the physical capital, the more often the rural households tend to choose the expanded livelihood strategy compared to the adjustment livelihood strategy; (c), The higher the financial capital of farm households, the more they prefer contractive livelihood strategies compared to the expanded livelihood strategy and (d), compared with the aid livelihood strategy, rural households with greater economic pressure are more inclined to choose the expanded livelihood strategy.This study can provide a reference for the establishment of relevant policies related to the adaptation capacity of rural households in the earthquake hazard zone. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Policy and Farmer Behavior)
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16 pages, 4962 KiB  
Article
Comparative Assessment of Hydroponic Lettuce Production Either under Artificial Lighting, or in a Mediterranean Greenhouse during Wintertime
by Orfeas Voutsinos, Maria Mastoraki, Georgia Ntatsi, Georgios Liakopoulos and Dimitrios Savvas
Agriculture 2021, 11(6), 503; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11060503 - 29 May 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 6257
Abstract
Butterhead lettuce was grown hydroponically in a vertical farm under high (HLI) and low (LLI) light intensity (310, and 188 μmol m−2 s−1, respectively) and compared to hydroponically grown lettuce in a greenhouse (GT) during wintertime in Athens, Greece (144 [...] Read more.
Butterhead lettuce was grown hydroponically in a vertical farm under high (HLI) and low (LLI) light intensity (310, and 188 μmol m−2 s−1, respectively) and compared to hydroponically grown lettuce in a greenhouse (GT) during wintertime in Athens, Greece (144 μmol m−2 s−1). The highest plant biomass was recorded in the HLI treatment, whereas LLI and GT produced similar plant biomass. However, the LLI produced vortex-like plants, which were non-marketable, while the plants in the GT were normal-shaped and saleable. Net photosynthesis was highest in the HLI and higher in the LLI than in the GT, thereby indicating that light intensity was the dominant factor affecting photosynthetic performance. Nevertheless, the unsatisfactory performance of the LLI is ascribed, not only to reduced light intensity, but also to reduced light uniformity as the LED lamps were closer to the plants than in the HLI. Furthermore, the large solar irradiance variability in the GT resulted in substantially higher adaptation to the increased light intensity compared to LLI, as indicated by chlorophyll fluorescence measurements. Light intensity and photoperiod are believed to be the primary reasons for increased nitrate content in the GT than in the vertical farming treatments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of Light on Horticultural Crops)
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15 pages, 3840 KiB  
Article
Automated Chicken Counting in Surveillance Camera Environments Based on the Point Supervision Algorithm: LC-DenseFCN
by Liangben Cao, Zihan Xiao, Xianghui Liao, Yuanzhou Yao, Kangjie Wu, Jiong Mu, Jun Li and Haibo Pu
Agriculture 2021, 11(6), 493; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11060493 - 26 May 2021
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 6166
Abstract
The density of a chicken population has a great influence on the health and growth of the chickens. For free-range chicken producers, an appropriate population density can increase their economic benefit and be utilized for estimating the economic value of the flock. However, [...] Read more.
The density of a chicken population has a great influence on the health and growth of the chickens. For free-range chicken producers, an appropriate population density can increase their economic benefit and be utilized for estimating the economic value of the flock. However, it is very difficult to calculate the density of chickens quickly and accurately because of the complicated environmental background and the dynamic number of chickens. Therefore, we propose an automated method for quickly and accurately counting the number of chickens on a chicken farm, rather than doing so manually. The contributions of this paper are twofold: (1) we innovatively designed a full convolutional network—DenseFCN—and counted the chickens in an image using the method of point supervision, which achieved an accuracy of 93.84% and 9.27 frames per second (FPS); (2) the point supervision method was used to detect the density of chickens. Compared with the current mainstream object detection method, the higher effectiveness of this method was proven. From the performance evaluation of the algorithm, the proposed method is practical for measuring the density statistics of chickens in a farm environment and provides a new feasible tool for the density estimation of farm poultry breeding. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Innovations in Agriculture)
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18 pages, 12273 KiB  
Review
Planting Systems for Modern Olive Growing: Strengths and Weaknesses
by Riccardo Lo Bianco, Primo Proietti, Luca Regni and Tiziano Caruso
Agriculture 2021, 11(6), 494; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11060494 - 26 May 2021
Cited by 37 | Viewed by 10359
Abstract
The objective of fully mechanizing olive harvesting has been pursued since the 1970s to cope with labor shortages and increasing production costs. Only in the last twenty years, after adopting super-intensive planting systems and developing appropriate straddle machines, a solution seems to have [...] Read more.
The objective of fully mechanizing olive harvesting has been pursued since the 1970s to cope with labor shortages and increasing production costs. Only in the last twenty years, after adopting super-intensive planting systems and developing appropriate straddle machines, a solution seems to have been found. The spread of super-intensive plantings, however, raises serious environmental and social concerns, mainly because of the small number of cultivars that are currently used (basically 2), compared to over 100 cultivars today cultivated on a large scale across the world. Olive growing, indeed, insists on over 11 million hectares. Despite its being located mostly in the Mediterranean countries, the numerous olive growing districts are characterized by deep differences in climate and soil and in the frequency and nature of environmental stress. To date, the olive has coped with biotic and abiotic stress thanks to the great cultivar diversity. Pending that new technologies supporting plant breeding will provide a wider number of cultivars suitable for super-intensive systems, in the short term, new growing models must be developed. New olive orchards will need to exploit cultivars currently present in various olive-growing areas and favor increasing productions that are environmentally, socially, and economically sustainable. As in fruit growing, we should focus on “pedestrian olive orchards”, based on trees with small canopies and whose top can be easily reached by people from the ground and by machines (from the side of the top) that can carry out, in a targeted way, pesticide treatments, pruning and harvesting. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Science and Techniques for the Development of a Sustainable Oliveculture)
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15 pages, 3138 KiB  
Article
Production of Biochar from Vine Pruning: Waste Recovery in the Wine Industry
by Leonel J. R. Nunes, Abel M. Rodrigues, João C. O. Matias, Ana I. Ferraz and Ana C. Rodrigues
Agriculture 2021, 11(6), 489; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11060489 - 25 May 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3199
Abstract
The production of residual biomass, such as vine pruning, presents environmental problems since its elimination is usually carried out through the uncontrolled burning of the remaining materials and with the emission of greenhouse gases without any counterpart. The use of these residues to [...] Read more.
The production of residual biomass, such as vine pruning, presents environmental problems since its elimination is usually carried out through the uncontrolled burning of the remaining materials and with the emission of greenhouse gases without any counterpart. The use of these residues to produce biochar presents several advantages. In addition to the more common energy recovery, other conversion ways allowing new uses, such as soil amendment and carbon sequestration, can be analyzed as options as well. In the present study, vine pruning biomasses are characterized to evaluate the behavior of the different constituents. Then, the different possible applications are discussed. It is concluded that materials resulting from the pruning of vineyards have excellent characteristics for energy recovery, with an increment of more than 50% in the heating value and almost 60% in the carbon content when carbonized. This recovery procedure contributes to creating new value chains for residual materials to promote sustainable practices in the wine sector. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Agroecological Way to Ecosystem Services and Sustainable Developmental Goals)
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12 pages, 221 KiB  
Article
Pesticide Usage Is Compromising People’s Health in the United States: Ideas for Reducing Damages
by Terence J. Centner
Agriculture 2021, 11(6), 486; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11060486 - 24 May 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3432
Abstract
The development of synthetic pesticides has provided new tools for addressing troublesome pests. A review of parts of the registration process for pesticides in the United States identifies an outdated evaluation system that undervalues health damages. Registration fails to adequately consider co-formulants and [...] Read more.
The development of synthetic pesticides has provided new tools for addressing troublesome pests. A review of parts of the registration process for pesticides in the United States identifies an outdated evaluation system that undervalues health damages. Registration fails to adequately consider co-formulants and effects of exposure to multiple chemicals. Frustration with failures to protect people and property from damages accompanying pesticide usage has led injured plaintiffs to resort to tort lawsuits to secure relief. However, litigation involves compensating injured persons after they are injured rather than preventing injury. A more proactive approach would be to prevent situations that injure people. This paper offers four ideas to reduce health damages accompanying pesticide usage. Slight adjustments to pesticide registration requirements can offer greater protection for people’s health. Full article
21 pages, 1913 KiB  
Review
Hops (Humulus lupulus L.) as a Novel Multipurpose Crop for the Mediterranean Region of Europe: Challenges and Opportunities of Their Cultivation
by Francesco Rossini, Giuseppe Virga, Paolo Loreti, Nicolò Iacuzzi, Roberto Ruggeri and Maria Elena Provenzano
Agriculture 2021, 11(6), 484; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11060484 - 24 May 2021
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 10071
Abstract
The common hop (Humulus lupulus L.) is a dioecious perennial climbing plant, mainly known for the use of its female inflorescences (cones or, simply, “hops”) in the brewing industry. However, the very first interest towards hops was due to its medicinal properties. [...] Read more.
The common hop (Humulus lupulus L.) is a dioecious perennial climbing plant, mainly known for the use of its female inflorescences (cones or, simply, “hops”) in the brewing industry. However, the very first interest towards hops was due to its medicinal properties. Actually, the variety of compounds present in almost all plant parts were (and still are) used to treat or prevent several ailments and metabolic disorders, from insomnia to menopausal symptoms as well as obesity and even cancer. Although hops are predominantly grown for hopping beer, the increasing interest in natural medicine is widening new interesting perspectives for this crop. Moreover, the recent success of the craft beer sector all over the world, made the cultivated hop come out from its traditional growing areas. Particularly, in Europe this resulted in a movement towards southern countries such as Italy, which added itself to the already existing hop industry in Portugal and Spain. In these relatively new environments, a complete knowledge and expertise of hop growing practices is lacking. Overall, while many studies were conducted globally on phytochemistry, bioactivity, and the genetics of hops, results from public research activity on basic hop agronomy are very few and discontinuous as well. The objective of this article is to provide an overview of possible uses, phenology, and agronomic aspects of hops, with specific reference to the difficulties and opportunities this crop is experiencing in the new growing areas, under both conventional and organic farming. The present review aims to fill a void still existing for this topic in the literature and to give directions for farmers that want to face the cultivation of such a challenging crop. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Agricultural Research When Considering Criteria of Multifunctionality and Sustainability)
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16 pages, 1605 KiB  
Article
Phosphate-Solubilizing Enterobacter ludwigii AFFR02 and Bacillus megaterium Mj1212 Rescues Alfalfa’s Growth under Post-Drought Stress
by Sang-Mo Kang, Muhammad-Aaqil Khan, Muhammad Hamayun, Lee-Rang Kim, Eun-Hae Kwon, Yo-Sep Kang, Ki-Yong Kim, Jae-Jeong Park and In-Jung Lee
Agriculture 2021, 11(6), 485; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11060485 - 24 May 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3128
Abstract
Drought stress is a prevalent environmental stress that adversely affects agricultural industries worldwide. In this study, bacterial isolates, AFFR02 and Mj1212, showed tolerance to polyethylene glycol-induced (PEG) drought stress (approximately 15%) and possess strong phosphate-solubilizing capacity. Moreover, we investigated the plant growth attributes, [...] Read more.
Drought stress is a prevalent environmental stress that adversely affects agricultural industries worldwide. In this study, bacterial isolates, AFFR02 and Mj1212, showed tolerance to polyethylene glycol-induced (PEG) drought stress (approximately 15%) and possess strong phosphate-solubilizing capacity. Moreover, we investigated the plant growth attributes, chlorophyll content, and ion uptake in alfalfa plants (Medicago sativa L) inoculated with isolates AFFR02 and Mj1212 under drought stress. We observed that drought stress drastically affects alfalfa’s growth attributes: shoot length: SL (24.88%), root length: RL (29.62%), shoot fresh weight: SFW (49.62%), root fresh weight: RFW (45.09%), stalk diameter: SD (52.84%), and chlorophyll content: CC (19.2%). However, in bacterial-inoculated alfalfa plants, the growth attributes significantly recovered were SL (12.42%), RL (21.30%), SFW (50.74%), RFW (46.42%), SD (76.72%), and CC (17.98%). In drought-stressed alfalfa plants, we observed a significant decrease in the relative water content (7.45%), whereas there was an increase in electrical conductivity (68.87%) and abscisic acid contents (164.42%). Antioxidant analysis showed a significant increase in total phenolic content (46.08%), DPPH-scavenging activity (39.66%), total flavonoid (13.68%), and superoxide dismutase (28.51%) in alfalfa treated with drought stress and bacterial isolates AFFR02 and Mj1212 simultaneously. Moreover, an increase in inductively coupled plasma (ICP) analysis of potassium (17.98%), phosphorous (11.14%), calcium (3.07%), and magnesium (6.71%) was recorded for bacteria-inoculated alfalfa plants under drought stress. In conclusion, bacterial isolates AFFR02 and Mj1212 enhance alfalfa growth under drought stress. Therefore, the isolates could be used as potential candidates in smart-climate agricultural practices in drought-stricken areas worldwide. Full article
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11 pages, 1512 KiB  
Article
Trade-Off between Root Efficiency and Root Size Is Associated with Yield Performance of Soybean under Different Water and Phosphorus Levels
by Jin He, Yi Jin, Kadambot H. M. Siddique and Feng-Min Li
Agriculture 2021, 11(6), 481; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11060481 - 24 May 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 1890
Abstract
(1) Background: Root traits play important roles in acclimating to water and phosphorus (P) shortages. However, the relative importance of root size and efficiency under these conditions is unknown. (2) Methods: This study investigated the role of root size and efficiency in acclimating [...] Read more.
(1) Background: Root traits play important roles in acclimating to water and phosphorus (P) shortages. However, the relative importance of root size and efficiency under these conditions is unknown. (2) Methods: This study investigated the role of root size and efficiency in acclimating to water- and P-limited environments. Three soybean genotypes with contrasting root sizes were grown in tall cylindrical pots to compare grain yield, root density, and water- and nutrient-uptake efficiencies under two water (well-watered and water-stressed) and three P levels (0 (P0), 60 (P60), and 120 (P120) mg P kg−1 dry soil). (3) Results: Water or P deficit, and combined water and P deficit significantly decreased grain yield, which was associated with greater P uptake per unit root dry weight (DW) under water stress. The genotype Zhonghuang 30 (ZH) with the greatest water, nitrogen, and P uptakes per unit root DW had the highest grain yield at P60 and P120 under water stress and P0 under well-watered conditions, but ZH had the lowest grain yield at P60 and P120 under well-watered conditions, due to its small root size. (4) Conclusions: High root efficiency—which was correlated with high root density—improved grain yield under P- and water-limited conditions, but restricted yield potential when P and water were not limited. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Water Management)
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14 pages, 1158 KiB  
Review
Potential of Quercetin to Reduce Herbivory without Disrupting Natural Enemies and Pollinators
by Eric W. Riddick
Agriculture 2021, 11(6), 476; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11060476 - 22 May 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3295
Abstract
Quercetin is one of the most abundant flavonoids in terrestrial plants and pollen. In living plants, quercetin can function as a secondary metabolite to discourage insect herbivory. Literature on insect-quercetin interactions was searched and data synthesized to test the hypothesis that quercetin can [...] Read more.
Quercetin is one of the most abundant flavonoids in terrestrial plants and pollen. In living plants, quercetin can function as a secondary metabolite to discourage insect herbivory. Literature on insect-quercetin interactions was searched and data synthesized to test the hypothesis that quercetin can become an effective biocide to reduce herbivory without disrupting natural enemies and pollinators. The USDA, National Agricultural Library, DigiTop Navigator platform was used to search the literature for harmful versus nonharmful effects of quercetin on insect behavior, physiology, and life history parameters. Quercetin effects were evaluated on herbivores in five insect orders, natural enemies in two orders, and pollinators in one order. Quercetin was significantly more harmful to Hemiptera, Diptera, and Lepidoptera but significantly more nonharmful to Coleoptera. Harmful and nonharmful effects to Orthoptera were indistinguishable. Quercetin had significantly more harmful (than nonharmful) effects on herbivores when data from the five insect orders were combined. Quercetin concentration (mg/mL) did not significantly affect these results. Quercetin was significantly more nonharmful to natural enemies (Coleoptera and Hymenoptera, combined) and pollinators (Hymenoptera). This study suggests that quercetin could prevent herbivory without disrupting natural enemies and pollinators, but field experiments are necessary to substantiate these results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pest Control and Insect Behavioral Ecology)
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13 pages, 2423 KiB  
Article
Efficacy of Root Zone Temperature Increase in Root and Shoot Development and Hormone Changes in Different Maize Genotypes
by Zhenqing Xia, Guixin Zhang, Shibo Zhang, Qi Wang, Yafang Fu and Haidong Lu
Agriculture 2021, 11(6), 477; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11060477 - 22 May 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2331
Abstract
In the context of global warming, the effects of warming in the root zone of crops on maize seedling characteristics deserve research attention. Previous studies on the adaptive traits of dryland maize have mainly focused on soil moisture and nutrients, rather than analyzing [...] Read more.
In the context of global warming, the effects of warming in the root zone of crops on maize seedling characteristics deserve research attention. Previous studies on the adaptive traits of dryland maize have mainly focused on soil moisture and nutrients, rather than analyzing potential factors for the adaptive traits of root zone warming. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of different root zone warming ranges on the agronomic traits, hormones, and microstructures of maize seedling roots and leaves. The results showed that minor increases in the root zone temperature significantly enhanced maize seedling growth. However, when the temperature in the root zone was excessive, the stem diameter, root surface area, root volume, total root length, dry matter accumulation, and root/shoot biomass of maize seedlings sharply decreased. Under high temperature stress in the root zone, the root conduit area; root stele diameter; root content of trans-zeatin (ZT), gibberellin A3 (GA3), and indoleacetic acid (IAA); leaf thickness; upper and lower epidermis thickness; and leaf content of ZT and GA3 were significantly decreased. The hormone content and microstructure changes might be an important reason for root growth maldevelopment and nutrient absorption blockage, and they also affected the leaf growth of maize seedlings. Compared with the ‘senescent’ maize type Shaandan 902 (SD902), the plant microstructure of the ‘stay-green’ maize type Shaandan 609 (SD609) was less affected by increased temperatures, and the ability of the root system to absorb and transport water was stronger, which might explain its tolerance of high temperature stress in the root zone. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Plant Growth Regulators and Hormones on Crop Resistance)
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10 pages, 975 KiB  
Article
Mycorrhizal Fungal Diversity and Its Relationship with Soil Properties in Camellia oleifera
by Rui-Cheng Liu, Zhi-Yan Xiao, Abeer Hashem, Elsayed Fathi Abd_Allah and Qiang-Sheng Wu
Agriculture 2021, 11(6), 470; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11060470 - 21 May 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2987
Abstract
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are well known for their important physiological implications on diversified host plants, while the information on AMF diversity and its relationship with soil properties of Camellia oleifera is yet not fully understood. In the proposed study, high-throughput sequencing of [...] Read more.
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are well known for their important physiological implications on diversified host plants, while the information on AMF diversity and its relationship with soil properties of Camellia oleifera is yet not fully understood. In the proposed study, high-throughput sequencing of small subunit ribosomal RNA was performed to analyze the AMF diversity of the rhizosphere and endosphere of 20-year-old C. oleifera Xianglin in the field at Wuhan (China) and their relationship with soil physico-chemical properties. As high as 30.73–41.68% of the roots of C. oleifera were colonized by indigenous AMF with a spore density of 66–111 spores/10 g soil. The surface soil (0–20 cm) showed significantly higher root fungal colonization, spore density, soil hyphal length, and easily extractable glomalin-related soil protein content than the sub-surface soil (20–40 cm). Soil pH value, available K, and NO3−-N content affected the root and soil mycorrhizal development, whilst soil pH proved to be the most influential soil property governing their variability. A total of 467 OTUs associated with AMF were detected from the endosphere and rhizosphere, representing 10 genera and 138 species, of which 295 OTUs and 9 genera were jointly observed. The genus Glomus displayed maximum relative abundance (>86%) in both endosphere and rhizosphere. Scutellospora was detected in the endosphere, but absent in the rhizosphere. The endosphere recorded a relatively higher number of OTUs and alpha diversity indices (Shannon, Simpson, and PD index) of AMF than rhizosphere. Our study, hence, revealed that C. oleifera in fields was mainly colonized by Glomus, coupled with comparatively greater AMF diversity in the endosphere than in the rhizosphere, governed predominantly by soil pH, NO3−-N content, and available K content. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Roles and Interests of Mycorrhizal Communities in Agricultural and Agroforestry Practices)
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17 pages, 2438 KiB  
Article
Modelling Fertilizer Use in Relation to Farmers’ Household Characteristics in Three Gorges Reservoir Area, China
by Lihua Ma, Jiupai Ni, Luuk Fleskens, Han Wang and Yunqing Xuan
Agriculture 2021, 11(6), 472; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11060472 - 21 May 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2155
Abstract
Non-point source pollution from excessive use of fertilizers in agriculture is a major cause of the eutrophication problem in China. Understanding farmers’ decision-making concerning fertilization and identifying the influencing factors in this process are key to tackling overfertilization and related pollution issues. This [...] Read more.
Non-point source pollution from excessive use of fertilizers in agriculture is a major cause of the eutrophication problem in China. Understanding farmers’ decision-making concerning fertilization and identifying the influencing factors in this process are key to tackling overfertilization and related pollution issues. This paper reports a study on modelling decisions about fertilizer use based on data collected from 200 farmer households in the Three Gorges Reservoir area of China, using a well-fitted artificial neural network (ANN) with incorporated variance-based sensitivity analysis. The rate of fertilizer use estimated from the model is in good agreement with observed data. The model is further validated and tested by comparing the simulated and observed values. Results show that the model is able to identify the influencing factors and their interactions causing the variation in fertilizer use and to help pinpoint the underlying reasons. It is found that the farmers’ fertilization behavior is greatly affected by the area of cultivated land, followed by the interaction among farmers’ education level, annual income, and awareness of the importance of environmental protection. Future land consolidation is one of several ways to achieve more sustainable fertilization strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Economics, Policies and Rural Management)
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21 pages, 12917 KiB  
Article
Design Matching and Dynamic Performance Test for an HST-Based Drive System of a Hillside Crawler Tractor
by Zhijie Liu, Guoqiang Zhang, Guoping Chu, Hanlin Niu, Yazhou Zhang and Fuzeng Yang
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 466; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050466 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3259
Abstract
In recent years, research into and development of hillside tractors has become a popular topic in the field of agricultural engineering in China. To solve the main problems associated with a low adjustment range of the working speed, complex operation, and low safety [...] Read more.
In recent years, research into and development of hillside tractors has become a popular topic in the field of agricultural engineering in China. To solve the main problems associated with a low adjustment range of the working speed, complex operation, and low safety for slope operation of medium-sized crawler tractors, a hydrostatic drive system that can be used for hillside crawler tractors was designed. According to the operation requirements of a hillside crawler tractor, the parameters of the three-cylinder diesel engine, hydrostatic transmission (HST), drive rear axle, and other key components of the drive system were matched after the force and motion analyses of the tractor, and then the main performance indicators, including the traction performance, system pressure and working speed of the drive system were verified. On this basis, a drive system performance test bench was built, and the traction performance and starting acceleration performance of the drive system was tested. The results of the traction bench test show that when the engine was at the maximum torque point of 1700 r/min, the maximum theoretical tractive force outputted by the tractor in Gear I was 114,563 N, and the maximum theoretical tractive force outputted by tractor in Gear II was 10,959.2 N, which were both larger than the traction resistance of 9550.6 N experienced by the hillside tractor ploughing on the slope. The results of the initial acceleration bench test show that the tractor driving speed can gradually increase with increasing output of the variable pump and can reach the maximum in 3 s. When the tractor was driving on flat ground, the maximum driving speeds of Gear I, Gear II, and Gear III were 4.65 km/h, 6.58 km/h, and 8.57 km/h, respectively, which are close to the theoretical values. When the tractor was driving on a 15° slope, the maximum driving speeds of Gear I, Gear II, and Gear III were 4.55 km/h, 6.25 km/h, and 8.28 km/h, respectively. It can be concluded that the design matching of the drive system is reasonable, the speed consistency is good and there is enough power reserve, which can meet the requirements for a large workload. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Technology)
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30 pages, 355 KiB  
Review
Response and Defence Mechanisms of Vegetable Crops against Drought, Heat and Salinity Stress
by Maria Giordano, Spyridon A. Petropoulos and Youssef Rouphael
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 463; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050463 - 19 May 2021
Cited by 106 | Viewed by 9618
Abstract
Environmental pollution, increasing CO2 atmospheric levels and the greenhouse effect are closely associated with the ongoing climate change and the extreme climatic events we are witnessing all over the Earth. Drought, high temperature and salinity are among the main environmental stresses that [...] Read more.
Environmental pollution, increasing CO2 atmospheric levels and the greenhouse effect are closely associated with the ongoing climate change and the extreme climatic events we are witnessing all over the Earth. Drought, high temperature and salinity are among the main environmental stresses that negatively affect the yield of numerous crops, challenging the world food safety. These effects are more profound in vegetable crops which are generally more susceptible to climate change than field or tree crops. The response to single or combined environmental stressors involves various changes in plant morphology and physiology or in molecular processes. Knowing the mechanisms behind these responses may help towards the creation of more tolerant genotypes in the long-term. However, the imediacy of the problem requires urgently short-term measures such as the use of eco-sustainable agricultural practices which can alleviate the negative effects of environmental pollution and allow vegetable crops to adapt to adverse climatic conditions. In this review, the main abiotic stressors were examined, namely drought, heat and salinity stress, focusing on the mechanisms involved in the most common vegetable crops responses. Moreover, the use of eco-sustainable cultural techniques, such as biostimulants, grafting and genomic sequencing techniques, to increase the quality of tomato crop under adverse environmental conditions are also presented. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Secondary Metabolism as a Response to Single or Multiple Stresses)
17 pages, 1223 KiB  
Review
Crop Diversification for Improved Weed Management: A Review
by Gourav Sharma, Swati Shrestha, Sudip Kunwar and Te-Ming Tseng
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 461; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050461 - 19 May 2021
Cited by 39 | Viewed by 9412
Abstract
Weeds are among the major constraints to any crop production system, reducing productivity and profitability. Herbicides are among the most effective methods to control weeds, and reliance on herbicides for weed control has increased significantly with the advent of herbicide-resistant crops. Unfortunately, over-reliance [...] Read more.
Weeds are among the major constraints to any crop production system, reducing productivity and profitability. Herbicides are among the most effective methods to control weeds, and reliance on herbicides for weed control has increased significantly with the advent of herbicide-resistant crops. Unfortunately, over-reliance on herbicides leads to environmental-health issues and herbicide-resistant weeds, causing human health and ecological concerns. Crop diversification can help manage weeds sustainably in major crop production systems. It acts as an organizing principle under which technological innovations and ecological insights can be combined to manage weeds sustainably. Diversified cropping can be defined as the conscious inclusion of functional biodiversity at temporal and/or spatial levels to improve the productivity and stability of ecosystem services. Crop diversification helps to reduce weed density by negatively impacting weed seed germination and weed growth. Additionally, diversified farming systems are more resilient to climate change than monoculture systems and provide better crop yield. However, there are a few challenges to adopting a diversified cropping system, ranging from technology innovations, government policies, farm-level decisions, climate change, and market conditions. In this review, we discuss how crop diversification supports sustainable weed management, the challenges associated with it, and the future of weed management with respect to the diversification concept. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Weeds in Diversified Cropping)
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24 pages, 4124 KiB  
Article
Influence of Tillage on the Production Inputs, Outputs, Soil Compaction and GHG Emissions
by Václav Voltr, Jana Wollnerová, Pavel Fuksa and Martin Hruška
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 456; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050456 - 18 May 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3399
Abstract
Fertilizer inputs, crop yields, the composition of technological operations and intensity of treatment with different types of pesticides in both basic approaches were evaluated. A comprehensive comparison of impacts showed that all crops, except sugar beet, achieved better economic and emission parameters of [...] Read more.
Fertilizer inputs, crop yields, the composition of technological operations and intensity of treatment with different types of pesticides in both basic approaches were evaluated. A comprehensive comparison of impacts showed that all crops, except sugar beet, achieved better economic and emission parameters of production based on the evaluation of GHG production by using reduced tillage compared to ploughing. The total reduction of GHG emissions based on CO2eq on average of all crops per ton as a result of the technological processes was 6% using reduced tillage. The most significant CO2eq reductions were achieved for rye and oat (13%), and spring barley (8%). The reduction of crop yields ranges from about 1% (spring barley) to 4% (grain maize). Cost reduction per tone was in the range of 14% (rye) to 2% (silage maize). The energy gain was at reduced tillage improved at poppy (8%), rape (4%), oat (3%), rye (3%) and spring and winter barley (2%). From the evaluation of the number of chemical protections, a lower number of total protections was found at the no-till system for most crops. In most cases, there was no difference between ploughing and reduced tillage. There was an increase in specific nitrogen consumption per tonne of production in marginal areas, reduced tillage led to an increase in soil compaction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cropping Systems: Implications on Climate and Environment)
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20 pages, 21304 KiB  
Review
Remote Sensing Vegetation Indices in Viticulture: A Critical Review
by Rigas Giovos, Dimitrios Tassopoulos, Dionissios Kalivas, Nestor Lougkos and Anastasia Priovolou
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 457; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050457 - 18 May 2021
Cited by 69 | Viewed by 13415
Abstract
One factor of precision agriculture is remote sensing, through which we can monitor vegetation health and condition. Much research has been conducted in the field of remote sensing and agriculture analyzing the applications, while the reviews gather the research on this field and [...] Read more.
One factor of precision agriculture is remote sensing, through which we can monitor vegetation health and condition. Much research has been conducted in the field of remote sensing and agriculture analyzing the applications, while the reviews gather the research on this field and examine different scientific methodologies. This work aims to gather the existing vegetation indices used in viticulture, which were calculated from imagery acquired by remote sensing platforms such as satellites, airplanes and UAVs. In this review we present the vegetation indices, the applications of these and the spatial distribution of the research on viticulture from the early 2000s. A total of 143 publications on viticulture were reviewed; 113 of them had used remote sensing methods to calculate vegetation indices, while the rejected ones have used proximal sensing methods. The findings show that the most used vegetation index is NDVI, while the most frequently appearing applications are monitoring and estimating vines water stress and delineation of management zones. More than half of the publications use multitemporal analysis and UAVs as the most used among remote sensing platforms. Spain and Italy are the countries with the most publications on viticulture with one-third of the publications referring to regional scale whereas the others to site-specific/vineyard scale. This paper reviews more than 90 vegetation indices that are used in viticulture in various applications and research topics, and categorized them depending on their application and the spectral bands that they are using. To summarize, this review is a guide for the applications of remote sensing and vegetation indices in precision viticulture and vineyard assessment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Technologies and Spatiotemporal Approaches in Precision Agriculture)
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25 pages, 4688 KiB  
Article
The Essence of Agritourism and Its Profitability during the Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic
by Michał Roman and Piotr Grudzień
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 458; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050458 - 18 May 2021
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 8954
Abstract
The article aims to present the essence of agritourism in the literature regarding the subject of its profitability during the COVID-19 pandemic. To verify the goal, data from our own research was applied. The research was conducted in 2019 and 2020 with the [...] Read more.
The article aims to present the essence of agritourism in the literature regarding the subject of its profitability during the COVID-19 pandemic. To verify the goal, data from our own research was applied. The research was conducted in 2019 and 2020 with the exploratory survey method and an interview questionnaire. Thirty-two service providers running agritourism activities in randomly selected rural communes of the Podlaskie province (communes of Mielnik, Suchowola, Giby, Płaska, and Hajnówka) participated in the study. The Ward cluster analysis method was used to group the counties of the Podlaskie Province in terms of spatial differentiation in the development of agritourism. For this purpose, data provided by the Central Statistical Authority in Poland reported for 2019 and the primary data (research by M. Roman) was applied. In the first part of the article, the authors describe and explain the basic concepts of rural tourism and agritourism based on the literature. The figures were also quoted, for example, the number of agritourism farms in Poland and other European countries. The last part of the study provides the results of our own research. The study demonstrates that in 2020 agritourism was profitable, as the owners of the farms recorded a profit. The research confirms the massive impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on agritourism. During a pandemic, many people choose places with few people (e.g., rural areas). The research also considered the importance of innovation on agritourism farms and business profitability. The issues discussed in the study relate to current events—scientific studies examining the impact of COVID-19 on agritourism concern other countries; however, the authors were not able to find studies focusing on agritourism farms in Poland. A new element of methodology in this article was to organize the concepts of agritourism and to present the impact of coronavirus pandemic on the profitability of agritourism. It was also essential to present the classification of rural tourism. According to the authors of the study, the problems covered here are new and point to new trends in the development of agritourism during the pandemic. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Changes on Family Farms in Developed, Developing and Transition Economies)
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14 pages, 1452 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Nutritive Values through Comparison of Forage Yield and Silage Quality of Mono-Cropped and Intercropped Maize-Soybean Harvested at Two Maturity Stages
by Maw Ni Soe Htet, Jiang-Bo Hai, Poe Thinzar Bo, Xiang-Wei Gong, Chun-Juan Liu, Ke Dang, Li-Xin Tian, Rab Nawaz Soomro, Khaing Lin Aung and Bai-Li Feng
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 452; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050452 - 17 May 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4083
Abstract
Maize and soybean intercropping is a cereal-legume intercropping pattern that not only increases grain yield but also improves the nutritional value of silage. Experiments were conducted in the summer season to compare the yield and nutritional composition of the forage and silage quality [...] Read more.
Maize and soybean intercropping is a cereal-legume intercropping pattern that not only increases grain yield but also improves the nutritional value of silage. Experiments were conducted in the summer season to compare the yield and nutritional composition of the forage and silage quality of mono-cropped maize and intercropped maize-soybean harvested at two stages of maturity. The main treatments were one sole crop maize (SM) and four maize-soybean intercropping patterns (one-row maize to one-row soybean (1M1S), one-row maize to two-row soybean (1M2S), one-row maize to three-row soybean (1M3S), and two-row maize to one-row soybean (2M1S). The crops were harvested when the maize reached the milk (R3) and maturity (R6) stages. Results indicated a significant increase in the fresh biomass and dry-matter production of maize fodder alone compared with those of maize intercropped with soybean fodder. After 60 days of ensiling period, silage samples were analyzed for pH, organic acids, dry matter, crude protein (CP), ether extract, neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF), and other mineral compositions. All intercropped silages showed higher CP values (1M1S, 12.1%; 1M2S, 12.2%; 1M3S, 12.4%; and 2M1S, 12.1%) than the SM silage (8.7%). Higher organic acids were produced in 1M3S than in the other silages. Correlation data showed that CP was highly correlated with lactic acid but negatively associated with crude fiber, nitrogen-free extract, and NDF. Thus, the intercropping of maize and soybean silage is recommended due its enhanced crop production, nutritional values in dairy animals, and prolific animal feedings and because it was scientifically evaluated as a feed stuff. This study indicated that 1M3S was the most preferable among intercropped silages in terms of nutrient composition. Full article
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11 pages, 244 KiB  
Article
Effects of Adding Pre-Fermented Fluid Prepared from Red Clover or Lucerne on Fermentation Quality and In Vitro Digestibility of Red Clover and Lucerne Silages
by Lin Sun, Yun Jiang, Qinyin Ling, Na Na, Haiwen Xu, Diwakar Vyas, Adegbola Tolulope Adesogan and Yanlin Xue
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 454; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050454 - 17 May 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2517
Abstract
This study examined the effects of chopping or chopping + blender maceration of red clover or lucerne on pre-fermented juice (PFJ) and determined the effects of PFJs on the quality of red clover silage or lucerne silage. The PFJs from chopping red clover [...] Read more.
This study examined the effects of chopping or chopping + blender maceration of red clover or lucerne on pre-fermented juice (PFJ) and determined the effects of PFJs on the quality of red clover silage or lucerne silage. The PFJs from chopping red clover (PFJ-RC) or lucerne (PFJ-LC) had a higher lactic acid bacteria (LAB) count than that from chopping + blender maceration (p < 0.05) and were used as additives. Compared with the Control of both silages, adding PFJ increased LAB, lactic acid (LA), and in vitro digestibility of dry matter (IVDMD) (p < 0.05), while pH, acetic acid (AA), and ammonia nitrogen/total nitrogen (NH3-N/TN) were decreased (p < 0.05). For red clover silages, the PFJ-RC treatment contained the greatest LAB and LA and the lowest pH and NH3-N/TN among treatments (p < 0.05); similar results were observed in PFJ-LC treatment for lucerne silages (p < 0.05). The IVDMD of both silages correlated negatively with pH, AA, and NH3-N/TN and positively with LA (p < 0.05). Overall, chopping alone was a better method for preparing PFJ. Adding PFJ at ensiling increased LA and decreased the pH, AA, and NH3-N/TN of both silages. Ensiling lucerne or red clover with PFJ from the ensiling material had a more positive effect on the fermentation parameters mentioned above. Satisfactory fermentation parameters detected in the present study contributed to improving the IVDMD of both silages. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forage Quality, Conservation and Evaluation in Ruminant Production Systems)
20 pages, 1105 KiB  
Review
Intercropping—Evaluating the Advantages to Broadacre Systems
by Uttam Khanal, Kerry J. Stott, Roger Armstrong, James G. Nuttall, Frank Henry, Brendan P. Christy, Meredith Mitchell, Penny A. Riffkin, Ashley J. Wallace, Malcolm McCaskill, Thabo Thayalakumaran and Garry J. O’Leary
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 453; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050453 - 17 May 2021
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 7727
Abstract
Intercropping is considered by its advocates to be a sustainable, environmentally sound, and economically advantageous cropping system. Intercropping systems are complex, with non-uniform competition between the component species within the cropping cycle, typically leading to unequal relative yields making evaluation difficult. This paper [...] Read more.
Intercropping is considered by its advocates to be a sustainable, environmentally sound, and economically advantageous cropping system. Intercropping systems are complex, with non-uniform competition between the component species within the cropping cycle, typically leading to unequal relative yields making evaluation difficult. This paper is a review of the main existing metrics used in the scientific literature to assess intercropping systems. Their strengths and limitations are discussed. Robust metrics for characterising intercropping systems are proposed. A major limitation is that current metrics assume the same management level between intercropping and monocropping systems and do not consider differences in costs of production. Another drawback is that they assume the component crops in the mixture are of equal value. Moreover, in employing metrics, many studies have considered direct and private costs and benefits only, ignoring indirect and social costs and benefits of intercropping systems per se. Furthermore, production risk and growers’ risk preferences were often overlooked. In evaluating intercropping advantage using data from field trials, four metrics are recommended that collectively take into account all important differences in private costs and benefits between intercropping and monocropping systems, specifically the Land Equivalent Ratio, Yield Ratio, Value Ratio and Net Gross Margin. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intercropping Systems for Sustainable Agriculture)
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16 pages, 3974 KiB  
Article
Can Sustained Deficit Irrigation Save Water and Meet the Quality Characteristics of Mango?
by Leontina Lipan, Aarón A. Carbonell-Pedro, Belén Cárceles Rodríguez, Víctor Hugo Durán-Zuazo, Dionisio Franco Tarifa, Iván Francisco García-Tejero, Baltasar Gálvez Ruiz, Simón Cuadros Tavira, Raquel Muelas, Esther Sendra, Ángel A. Carbonell-Barrachina and Francisca Hernández
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 448; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050448 - 15 May 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4323
Abstract
Mango is one of the most cultivated tropical fruits worldwide and one of few drought-tolerant plants. Thus, in this study the effect of a sustained deficit irrigation (SDI) strategy on mango yield and quality was assessed with the aim of reducing irrigation water [...] Read more.
Mango is one of the most cultivated tropical fruits worldwide and one of few drought-tolerant plants. Thus, in this study the effect of a sustained deficit irrigation (SDI) strategy on mango yield and quality was assessed with the aim of reducing irrigation water in mango crop. A randomized block design with four treatments was developed: (i) full irrigation (FI), assuring the crop’s water needs, and three levels of SDI receiving 75%, 50%, and 33% of irrigation water (SDI75, SDI50, and SDI33). Yield, morphology, color, titratable acidity (TA), total soluble solids (TSS), organic acids (OA), sugars, minerals, fiber, antioxidant activity (AA), and total phenolic content (TPC) were analyzed. The yield was reduced in SDI conditions (8%, 11%, and 20% for SDI75, SDI50, and SDI33, respectively), but the irrigation water productivity was higher in all SDI regimes. SDI significantly reduced the mango size, with SDI33 generating the smallest mangoes. Peel color significantly changed after 13 days of ripening, with SDI75 being the least ripe. The TA, AA, and citric acid were higher in SDI75, while the TPC and fiber increased in all SDI levels. Consequently, SDI reduced the mango size but increased the functionality of samples, without a severe detrimental effect on the yield. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future of Irrigation in Agriculture)
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19 pages, 2952 KiB  
Article
Changes in Bacterial and Fungal Soil Communities in Long-Term Organic Cropping Systems
by Jessica Cuartero, Onurcan Özbolat, Virginia Sánchez-Navarro, Marcos Egea-Cortines, Raúl Zornoza, Loredana Canfora, Luigi Orrù, Jose Antonio Pascual, Juana-María Vivo and Margarita Ros
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 445; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050445 - 15 May 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4738
Abstract
Long-term organic farming aims to reduce synthetic fertilizer and pesticide use in order to sustainably produce and improve soil quality. To do this, there is a need for more information about the soil microbial community, which plays a key role in a sustainable [...] Read more.
Long-term organic farming aims to reduce synthetic fertilizer and pesticide use in order to sustainably produce and improve soil quality. To do this, there is a need for more information about the soil microbial community, which plays a key role in a sustainable agriculture. In this paper, we assessed the long-term effects of two organic and one conventional cropping systems on the soil microbial community structure using high-throughput sequencing analysis, as well as the link between these communities and the changes in the soil properties and crop yield. The results showed that the crop yield was similar among the three cropping systems. The microbial community changed according to cropping system. Organic cultivation with manure compost and compost tea (Org_C) showed a change in the bacterial community associated with an improved soil carbon and nutrient content. A linear discriminant analysis effect size showed different bacteria and fungi as key microorganisms for each of the three different cropping systems, for conventional systems (Conv), different microorganisms such as Nesterenkonia, Galbibacter, Gramella, Limnobacter, Pseudoalteromonas, Pantoe, and Sporobolomyces were associated with pesticides, while for Org_C and organic cultivation with manure (Org_M), other types of microorganisms were associated with organic amendments with different functions, which, in some cases, reduce soil borne pathogens. However, further investigations such as functional approaches or network analyses are need to better understand the mechanisms behind this behavior. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Biodiversity in Sustainable Agriculture)
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22 pages, 2905 KiB  
Article
Nutritional Value of Jerusalem Artichoke Tubers (Helianthus tuberosus L.) Grown in Organic System under Lithuanian and Polish Conditions
by Barbara Sawicka, Honorata Danilčenko, Elvyra Jariene, Dominika Skiba, Leszek Rachoń, Piotr Barbaś and Piotr Pszczółkowski
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 440; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050440 - 12 May 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3951
Abstract
The aim of the study was to assess the nutritional value of H. tuberosus tubers grown in the organic farming system in Poland and Lithuania. The work was based on field experiments carried out in 2015–2017 in Parczew (Poland) and Akademija (Lithuania). The [...] Read more.
The aim of the study was to assess the nutritional value of H. tuberosus tubers grown in the organic farming system in Poland and Lithuania. The work was based on field experiments carried out in 2015–2017 in Parczew (Poland) and Akademija (Lithuania). The experiments were carried out using the randomized block method in four replications. Two cultivars of Jerusalem artichoke (JA) ‘Albik’ and ‘Rubik’ were tested. After the harvest of tubers, an assessment of their quality was carried out by standard methods. Due to the relocation of JA cultivation from Central and Eastern Europe to Northeast Europe, there were changes in the chemical composition of H. tuberosus tubers. The tubers from crops in Lithuania were characterized by a lower content of inulin, crude fiber and protein, ascorbic acid, total and endogenous amino acids than in Poland, but a higher content of true protein and macroelements. Edaphic factors determined, to a greater extent than genetic factors, the nutritional value of tubers. Assessment of the influence of varietal characteristics, meteorological conditions, and geographic location on the amount of biologically active compounds in JA will allow growers and consumers to choose the most suitable cultivars. Full article
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24 pages, 605 KiB  
Article
What Drives Farm Structural Change? An Analysis of Economic, Demographic and Succession Factors
by Alessandro Corsi, Vito Frontuto and Silvia Novelli
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 438; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050438 - 12 May 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3139
Abstract
The evolution of farm size and land use are important determinants of the efficiency and profitability of agriculture and the configuration of the territory. In this paper, a conceptual framework of the evolution of the number of farms and land use is presented, [...] Read more.
The evolution of farm size and land use are important determinants of the efficiency and profitability of agriculture and the configuration of the territory. In this paper, a conceptual framework of the evolution of the number of farms and land use is presented, arguing that a major determinant of the change in the number of farms is the presence or absence of successors to ageing farmers and that these socio-demographic variables shape the evolution of the sector in terms of farm size, while they do not significantly affect the changes in the farmed area. This hypothesis was empirically tested with data drawn from individual farm records of the Italian Agricultural Censuses of 2000 and 2010—aggregated at the municipality level for an Italian region—by estimating regressions on the decrease rates of the number of farms, the utilised agricultural area and the total agricultural area. The results support the conclusion that the change in the number of farms was largely determined by the absence of successors in family farms and by the average operators’ age, unlike the change in the farmed area, for which natural land conditions were the main drivers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Changes on Family Farms in Developed, Developing and Transition Economies)
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30 pages, 2420 KiB  
Review
Alternative Strategies for Controlling Wireworms in Field Crops: A Review
by Sylvain Poggi, Ronan Le Cointe, Jörn Lehmhus, Manuel Plantegenest and Lorenzo Furlan
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 436; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050436 - 11 May 2021
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 5547
Abstract
Wireworms, the soil-dwelling larvae of click beetles (Coleoptera: Elateridae), comprise major pests of several crops worldwide, including maize and potatoes. The current trend towards the reduction in pesticides use has resulted in strong demand for alternative methods to control wireworm populations. This review [...] Read more.
Wireworms, the soil-dwelling larvae of click beetles (Coleoptera: Elateridae), comprise major pests of several crops worldwide, including maize and potatoes. The current trend towards the reduction in pesticides use has resulted in strong demand for alternative methods to control wireworm populations. This review provides a state-of-the-art of current theory and practice in order to develop new agroecological strategies. The first step should be to conduct a risk assessment based on the production context (e.g., crop, climate, soil characteristics, and landscape) and on adult and/or larval population monitoring. When damage risk appears significant, prophylactic practices can be applied to reduce wireworm abundance (e.g., low risk rotations, tilling, and irrigation). Additionally, curative methods based on natural enemies and on naturally derived insecticides are, respectively, under development or in practice in some countries. Alternatively, practices may target a reduction in crop damage instead of pest abundance through the adoption of selected cultural practices (e.g., resistant varieties, planting and harvesting time) or through the manipulation of wireworm behavior (e.g., companion plants). Practices can be combined in a global Integrated Pest Management (IPM) framework to provide the desired level of crop protection. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Pest Management of Field Crops)
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26 pages, 10123 KiB  
Review
Applications of Discrete Element Method in the Research of Agricultural Machinery: A Review
by Hongbo Zhao, Yuxiang Huang, Zhengdao Liu, Wenzheng Liu and Zhiqi Zheng
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 425; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050425 - 08 May 2021
Cited by 49 | Viewed by 6740
Abstract
As a promising and convenient numerical calculation approach, the discrete element method (DEM) has been increasingly adopted in the research of agricultural machinery. DEM is capable of monitoring and recording the dynamic and mechanical behavior of agricultural materials in the operational process of [...] Read more.
As a promising and convenient numerical calculation approach, the discrete element method (DEM) has been increasingly adopted in the research of agricultural machinery. DEM is capable of monitoring and recording the dynamic and mechanical behavior of agricultural materials in the operational process of agricultural machinery, from both a macro-perspective and micro-perspective; which has been a tremendous help for the design and optimization of agricultural machines and their components. This paper reviewed the application research status of DEM in two aspects: First is the DEM model establishment of common agricultural materials such as soil, crop seed, and straw, etc. The other is the simulation of typical operational processes of agricultural machines or their components, such as rotary tillage, subsoiling, soil compaction, furrow opening, seed and fertilizer metering, crop harvesting, and so on. Finally, we evaluate the development prospects of the application of research on the DEM in agricultural machinery, and look forward to promoting its application in the field of the optimization and design of agricultural machinery. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Structures and Mechanization)
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16 pages, 2518 KiB  
Article
You Say You Want a Data Revolution? Taking on Food Systems Accountability
by Quinn Marshall, Alexandra L. Bellows, Rebecca McLaren, Andrew D. Jones and Jessica Fanzo
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 422; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050422 - 07 May 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4896
Abstract
Dramatic improvements in data availability and quality are needed to meet the challenge of monitoring and analyzing food systems, so that appropriate policies and actions to improve human and planetary health can be identified and data-informed accountability mechanisms put in place to strengthen [...] Read more.
Dramatic improvements in data availability and quality are needed to meet the challenge of monitoring and analyzing food systems, so that appropriate policies and actions to improve human and planetary health can be identified and data-informed accountability mechanisms put in place to strengthen food systems governance. Studying food systems is complex due to diverse actors and interlinking processes that operate on multiple spatial and temporal scales, and their multiple outcomes, which may be subject to hidden feedback mechanisms and tradeoffs. However, descriptive research to characterize food system components and make comparisons across geography, income groups, and population groups is an important foundation. The first part of this article details a series of critical data gaps and limitations that are currently hindering food systems learning and accountability, also comparing these gaps across regions and income groups. The second part of the article introduces the Food Systems Dashboard, a new data visualization tool that aims to improve access to and usage of food systems-related data, thus strengthening the data value chain and better informing policies and actions intended to improve diets, nutrition, livelihoods, and environmental sustainability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agriculture and Food Systems – Global and Local Comparisons)
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18 pages, 4338 KiB  
Article
An Approach for Rice Bacterial Leaf Streak Disease Segmentation and Disease Severity Estimation
by Shuo Chen, Kefei Zhang, Yindi Zhao, Yaqin Sun, Wei Ban, Yu Chen, Huifu Zhuang, Xuewei Zhang, Jinxiang Liu and Tao Yang
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 420; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050420 - 07 May 2021
Cited by 55 | Viewed by 4936
Abstract
Rice bacterial leaf streak (BLS) is a serious disease in rice leaves and can seriously affect the quality and quantity of rice growth. Automatic estimation of disease severity is a crucial requirement in agricultural production. To address this, a new method (termed BLSNet) [...] Read more.
Rice bacterial leaf streak (BLS) is a serious disease in rice leaves and can seriously affect the quality and quantity of rice growth. Automatic estimation of disease severity is a crucial requirement in agricultural production. To address this, a new method (termed BLSNet) was proposed for rice and BLS leaf lesion recognition and segmentation based on a UNet network in semantic segmentation. An attention mechanism and multi-scale extraction integration were used in BLSNet to improve the accuracy of lesion segmentation. We compared the performance of the proposed network with that of DeepLabv3+ and UNet as benchmark models used in semantic segmentation. It was found that the proposed BLSNet model demonstrated higher segmentation and class accuracy. A preliminary investigation of BLS disease severity estimation was carried out based on our BLS segmentation results, and it was found that the proposed BLSNet method has strong potential to be a reliable automatic estimator of BLS disease severity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Crop Protection, Diseases, Pests and Weeds)
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19 pages, 2905 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Composted Organic Wastes and Farmyard Manure for Improving Fertility of Poor Sandy Soils in Arid Regions
by Houda Oueriemmi, Petra Susan Kidd, Carmen Trasar-Cepeda, Beatriz Rodríguez-Garrido, Rahma Inès Zoghlami, Kaouther Ardhaoui, Ángeles Prieto-Fernández and Mohamed Moussa
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 415; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050415 - 04 May 2021
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4061
Abstract
Farmyard manure, an amendment traditionally used for improving the fertility of sandy soils in arid climates, is becoming scarce and expensive. Its shortage makes it necessary to evaluate, at field scale, the suitability and medium-term performance of other cheap, highly available substitutes. A [...] Read more.
Farmyard manure, an amendment traditionally used for improving the fertility of sandy soils in arid climates, is becoming scarce and expensive. Its shortage makes it necessary to evaluate, at field scale, the suitability and medium-term performance of other cheap, highly available substitutes. A field trial was established to analyze the effects of a single application of three organic residues on barley yield and nutrient uptake and selected soil properties after two consecutive harvests. Municipal solid waste compost (MSWC), sewage sludge compost (SSC) and farmyard manure (FYM) were tested at rates of 0, 20, 40 and 60 t ha−1. Adding all three organic amendments increased organic matter, cation exchange capacity and available P, Ca, Mg and K in the soil, the grain yield (up to 51%), and the barley plants’ nutrient contents. After the second harvest, a positive residual effect of the amendment was observed in plant yield (up to 77%) and nutrient contents. MSWC and SSC induced slight increases on the extractable fractions (BCR protocol) of Co, Cu and Ni, relative to the unamended soil. The results demonstrate the positive immediate and residual effect of the amendments evaluated as fertilizers for agricultural purposes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fertilizer Use, Soil Health and Agricultural Sustainability)
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11 pages, 564 KiB  
Article
Effect of Sowing Date on Soybean Development in South-Western Poland
by Magdalena Serafin-Andrzejewska, Waldemar Helios, Anna Jama-Rodzeńska, Marcin Kozak, Andrzej Kotecki and Leszek Kuchar
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 413; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050413 - 03 May 2021
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3138
Abstract
Soybean is a thermophilic and photophilic plant very sensitive to weather course during the vegetation period. This trait limits soybean cultivation in higher latitude countries. This field study aimed to evaluate the effects of three sowing dates on the development, the duration of [...] Read more.
Soybean is a thermophilic and photophilic plant very sensitive to weather course during the vegetation period. This trait limits soybean cultivation in higher latitude countries. This field study aimed to evaluate the effects of three sowing dates on the development, the duration of vegetative and generative stages, and the yield of two soybean cultivars (Lissabon and Merlin) under conditions in south-western Poland in the years 2016–2019. The sowing date determines the temperature and the day length available for soybean plants, influencing development and yield. Delaying the sowing date by 20 days in relation to the earliest (16–21.04) resulted in the shortening of the length of the vegetative development by 12 days and the shortening of the entire vegetation period by 14 days. The delayed sowing date (06–19.05) under the conditions of south-western Poland (Lower Silesia) contributed to a significant decrease in yield. Lissabon produced greater soybean yield than Merlin. Special attention should be paid to proper seed sowing dates in soybean agriculture practice. It is necessary to breed soybean genotypes adapted to day length and thermal conditions of the cultivation area to achieve the maximum seed yield. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Crop Production)
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19 pages, 5470 KiB  
Article
Assessment of Agricultural Drought Using Soil Water Deficit Index Based on ERA5-Land Soil Moisture Data in Four Southern Provinces of China
by Ruqing Zhang, Lu Li, Ye Zhang, Feini Huang, Jianduo Li, Wei Liu, Taoning Mao, Zili Xiong and Wei Shangguan
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 411; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050411 - 03 May 2021
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 6389
Abstract
It is important to accurately assess agricultural drought because of its harmful impacts on the ecosystem and economy. Soil moisture reanalysis datasets provide an important way to assess agricultural drought. In this study, the ERA5-Land surface and subsurface soil moisture was used to [...] Read more.
It is important to accurately assess agricultural drought because of its harmful impacts on the ecosystem and economy. Soil moisture reanalysis datasets provide an important way to assess agricultural drought. In this study, the ERA5-Land surface and subsurface soil moisture was used to estimate the soil water deficit index (SWDI) in four southern provinces of China. The ERA5-Land dataset was evaluated with in situ soil moisture observations from agrometeorological stations. Agricultural drought was assessed for three climate zones at a weekly scale from 2017 to 2019 and was compared with the atmospheric water deficit (AWD). It was found that both ERA5-Land soil moisture and the derived SWDI have relatively high accuracy, and the wet bias in the ERA5-Land dataset can be reduced by the calculation of the SWDI. The subsurface layer has better performance than the surface layer in drought monitoring, though they are highly correlated. Different climate zones demonstrate different drought periods and drought severity, and the temperate climate zone with no dry season has less droughts. The most severe droughts with the largest spatial extent occurred in the early winter, especially in 2019. Differences in the SWDI and AWD are mainly shown in southwestern Yunnan. The results of this study have important reference values for drought risk management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Water Management)
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11 pages, 1022 KiB  
Article
Sugar Beet Root Yield and Quality with Leaf Seasonal Dynamics in Relation to Planting Densities and Nitrogen Fertilization
by Ivana Varga, Zdenko Lončarić, Suzana Kristek, Antonela Markulj Kulundžić, Andrijana Rebekić and Manda Antunović
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 407; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050407 - 02 May 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3689
Abstract
This study aimed to analyze the seasonal dynamics of sugar beet leaf and root yield and quality in different plant populations and the nitrogen fertilization rate. The field trials were set as four different planting densities (60,000 to 140,000 plants ha−1) [...] Read more.
This study aimed to analyze the seasonal dynamics of sugar beet leaf and root yield and quality in different plant populations and the nitrogen fertilization rate. The field trials were set as four different planting densities (60,000 to 140,000 plants ha−1) and three different spring nitrogen fertilization rates: no fertilization, pre-sowing (45 kg ha−1 N), and pre-sowing with top dressing (99 kg ha−1 N in 2014 and 85.5 kg ha−1 N in 2015. The changes of leaf growth were done measuring leaf area (LA), leaf area index (LAI), specific leaf area (SLA), and leaf area ratio (LAR). The highest LAI in 2014 was determined on 30 July at 140,000 plants ha−1 (9.35 m2 m−1) and in 2015 on 20 June at 100,000 plants ha−1 (4.83 m2 m−2). In both years, the SLA and LAR was highest at the end of May. In relation to plant density, higher plant densities had on average the highest root yield, sucrose content, and white sugar yield. In both years, pre-sowing with top dressing spring nitrogen fertilization resulted in the highest root (95.0 t ha−1) and white sugar yield (11.4 t ha−1), whereas the highest sucrose content was after pre-sowing fertilization (14.9%). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nitrogen Fertilization in Crop Production)
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16 pages, 3147 KiB  
Article
The Effect of Sowing Date and Harvest Time on Leafy Greens of Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Yield and Selected Nutritional Parameters
by Katarzyna Adamczewska-Sowińska, Józef Sowiński and Anna Jama-Rodzeńska
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 405; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050405 - 30 Apr 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2705
Abstract
In 2015–2017, field experiments were conducted, in two facilities of the Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences: at the Research and Didactic Station in Psary (51°19′08” N, 17°03′37” E) and in the plots of the Department of Crop Production in Pawlowice (51°17′32” [...] Read more.
In 2015–2017, field experiments were conducted, in two facilities of the Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences: at the Research and Didactic Station in Psary (51°19′08” N, 17°03′37” E) and in the plots of the Department of Crop Production in Pawlowice (51°17′32” N, 17°11′72” E). The research aimed to evaluate fresh biomass yield and selected quality parameters of quinoa grown as a green leafy vegetable. The study was conducted on two soils: medium (clay soil texture) and light (sand soil texture), sowing quinoa in spring and summer periods. On both soils, quinoa was harvested 5 times at each sowing date. The yields of fresh plant biomass, basic morphological characteristics and certain quality traits were compared. All experimental factors had a significant effect on quinoa fresh biomass yield. On light soil, quinoa yielded 4 times lower than on medium soil, and its cultivation posed a high risk, especially at the summer sowing date. The experimental factors used had the greatest effect on macronutrient content. Growing quinoa on medium soil yielded biomass with higher K, Mg, Ca and N-NO3 concentration, while spring sown plants had higher K and N-NO3 concentration. Harvesting date had the greatest effect on the change in nutritional values. Potassium content decreased as the harvest date was delayed, and N-NO3 content decreased gradually until the fourth harvest date. The results showed that quinoa should be harvested as a green leafy vegetable when it reaches a height of 20–30 cm; biomass production is then at 500–1000 g per m2, potassium content is less than 10 g per 100 g dry matter and N-NO3 content is less than 100 mg 100−1 f.m. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Crop Production)
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16 pages, 588 KiB  
Article
Effects of Grape Seed Oil Supplementation to Broilers Diets on Growth Performance, Meat Fatty Acids, Health Lipid Indices and Lipid Oxidation Parameters
by Raluca Paula Turcu, Tatiana Dumitra Panaite, Arabela Elena Untea, Petru Alexandru Vlaicu, Irinel Adriana Badea and Silvia Mironeasa
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 404; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050404 - 29 Apr 2021
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 2968
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of grape seed oil (GSO) supplementation to broilers fed polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)-enriched diets on growth performance, color, texture, fatty acid content and lipid peroxidation of meat. The 4-week feeding trial was conducted [...] Read more.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of grape seed oil (GSO) supplementation to broilers fed polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)-enriched diets on growth performance, color, texture, fatty acid content and lipid peroxidation of meat. The 4-week feeding trial was conducted on 120 Cobb 500 broilers, assigned to three groups and housed in an experimental hall on permanent wood shaves litter. GSO was tested as source of natural antioxidants at different levels, 0% (GSO0, control), 1.5% (GSO1.5) and 3% (GSO3) in the presence of 4% flaxseed meal (FSM) in a completely randomized design. The results show that at the end of the experiment (42 days) the GSO supplementation had no effect (p < 0.05) on productivity parameters, except the final weight which was improved in GSO3 compared to GSO. The thigh meat color indicated a higher degree of lightness (p < 0.05), but the meat texture was not influenced (p < 0.05) by the new tested diets. The GSO diets increased (p < 0.05) the saturated fatty acid (SFA) content and decreased the PUFA content in the thigh meat. Thigh meat samples from GSO treatments had significantly (p < 0.05) improved oxidative stability. In the breast meat only the concentration of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) decreased (p < 0.05). It is concluded that the GSO significantly improved the thigh meat oxidative stability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Improvement and Innovation in the Nutritional Quality and Technologies of Animal Feed)
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11 pages, 294 KiB  
Article
Direct Economic Impact Assessment of Winter Honeybee Colony Losses in Three European Countries
by Despina Popovska Stojanov, Lazo Dimitrov, Jiří Danihlík, Aleksandar Uzunov, Miroljub Golubovski, Sreten Andonov and Robert Brodschneider
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 398; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050398 - 27 Apr 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5182
Abstract
Honeybees are of great importance because of their role in pollination as well as for hive products. The population of managed colonies fluctuates over time, and recent monitoring reports show different levels of colony losses in many regions and countries. The cause of [...] Read more.
Honeybees are of great importance because of their role in pollination as well as for hive products. The population of managed colonies fluctuates over time, and recent monitoring reports show different levels of colony losses in many regions and countries. The cause of this kind of loss is a combination of various factors, such as the parasitic mite Varroa destructor, viruses, pesticides, management practices, climate change, and other stress factors. Having in mind that the economic aspect of honeybee colony losses has not been estimated, a pioneer effort was made for developing a methodology that estimates the economic impact of honeybee colony losses. Winter loss data was based on 2993 answers of the COLOSS standard questionnaire survey of honeybee winter colony losses for 2016/2017. In addition, market and financial data were used for each country. In a comparative analysis, an assessment on the economic impact of colony losses in Austria, Czechia, and Macedonia was made. The estimation considered the value of the colonies and the potential production losses of the lost colonies and of surviving but weak colonies. The direct economic impact of winter honeybee colony losses in 2016/2017 in Austria was estimated to be about 32 Mio €; in Czechia, 21 Mio €; and in Macedonia, 3 Mio €. Economic impact reflects the different value levels in the three countries, national colony populations, and the magnitude of colony losses. This study also suggests that economic losses are much higher than the subsidies, which underlines the economic importance of honeybees for the agricultural sector. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Problems of Modern Beekeeping)
13 pages, 12132 KiB  
Article
Classification of Amanita Species Based on Bilinear Networks with Attention Mechanism
by Peng Wang, Jiang Liu, Lijia Xu, Peng Huang, Xiong Luo, Yan Hu and Zhiliang Kang
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 393; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050393 - 26 Apr 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2777
Abstract
The accurate classification of Amanita is helpful to its research on biological control and medical value, and it can also prevent mushroom poisoning incidents. In this paper, we constructed the Bilinear convolutional neural networks (B-CNN) with attention mechanism model based on transfer learning [...] Read more.
The accurate classification of Amanita is helpful to its research on biological control and medical value, and it can also prevent mushroom poisoning incidents. In this paper, we constructed the Bilinear convolutional neural networks (B-CNN) with attention mechanism model based on transfer learning to realize the classification of Amanita. When the model is trained, the weight on ImageNet is used for pre-training, and the Adam optimizer is used to update network parameters. In the test process, images of Amanita at different growth stages were used to further test the generalization ability of the model. After comparing our model with other models, the results show that our model greatly reduces the number of parameters while achieving high accuracy (95.2%) and has good generalization ability. It is an efficient classification model, which provides a new option for mushroom classification in areas with limited computing resources. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Image Analysis Techniques in Agriculture)
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13 pages, 2814 KiB  
Article
Early Weed Detection Using Image Processing and Machine Learning Techniques in an Australian Chilli Farm
by Nahina Islam, Md Mamunur Rashid, Santoso Wibowo, Cheng-Yuan Xu, Ahsan Morshed, Saleh A. Wasimi, Steven Moore and Sk Mostafizur Rahman
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 387; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050387 - 25 Apr 2021
Cited by 87 | Viewed by 11455
Abstract
This paper explores the potential of machine learning algorithms for weed and crop classification from UAV images. The identification of weeds in crops is a challenging task that has been addressed through orthomosaicing of images, feature extraction and labelling of images to train [...] Read more.
This paper explores the potential of machine learning algorithms for weed and crop classification from UAV images. The identification of weeds in crops is a challenging task that has been addressed through orthomosaicing of images, feature extraction and labelling of images to train machine learning algorithms. In this paper, the performances of several machine learning algorithms, random forest (RF), support vector machine (SVM) and k-nearest neighbours (KNN), are analysed to detect weeds using UAV images collected from a chilli crop field located in Australia. The evaluation metrics used in the comparison of performance were accuracy, precision, recall, false positive rate and kappa coefficient. MATLAB is used for simulating the machine learning algorithms; and the achieved weed detection accuracies are 96% using RF, 94% using SVM and 63% using KNN. Based on this study, RF and SVM algorithms are efficient and practical to use, and can be implemented easily for detecting weed from UAV images. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Weed Management in Agricultural Systems)
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21 pages, 3141 KiB  
Article
Segregation Distortion for Male Parents in High Density Genetic Maps from Reciprocal Crosses between Two Self-Incompatible Cultivars Confirms a Gametophytic System for Self-Incompatibility in Citrus
by Patrick Ollitrault, Dalel Ahmed, Gilles Costantino, Jean-Charles Evrard, Celine Cardi, Pierre Mournet, Aude Perdereau and Yann Froelicher
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 379; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050379 - 23 Apr 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3231
Abstract
Self-incompatibility is an important evolutionary feature in angiosperms and has major implications for breeding strategies in horticultural crops. In citrus, when coupled with parthenocarpy, it enables the production of seedless fruits in a mono-varietal orchard. A gametophytic incompatibility system with one S locus [...] Read more.
Self-incompatibility is an important evolutionary feature in angiosperms and has major implications for breeding strategies in horticultural crops. In citrus, when coupled with parthenocarpy, it enables the production of seedless fruits in a mono-varietal orchard. A gametophytic incompatibility system with one S locus was proposed for citrus, but its molecular mechanisms remain the subject of debate. The objective of this work was to locate the S locus by the analyzing segregation distortion in reciprocal crosses of two self-incompatible citrus sharing one self-incompatible allele and to compare this location with previously published models. High density genetic maps of ‘Fortune’ mandarin and ‘Ellendale tangor’ with, respectively, 2164 SNP and 1467 SNP markers, were constructed using genotyping by sequencing data. They are highly syntenic and collinear with the clementine genome. Complete rejection of one allele was only observed in male segregation in the two parents and in only one genomic area, at the beginning of chromosome 7 of the clementine reference genome. Haplotype data in the area surrounding the theoretical S locus were in agreement with previously proposed S genotypes. Overall, our results are in full agreement with the recently proposed gametophytic S-RNase system with the S locus at the beginning of chromosome 7 of the clementine reference genome. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Breeding and Genetics of Horticultural Crops)
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21 pages, 3799 KiB  
Review
Extraction of Cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa L. (Hemp)—Review
by Mehrab Valizadehderakhshan, Abolghasem Shahbazi, Masoud Kazem-Rostami, Matthew Scott Todd, Arnab Bhowmik and Lijun Wang
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 384; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050384 - 23 Apr 2021
Cited by 54 | Viewed by 26152
Abstract
Cannabis plant has long been execrated by law in different nations due to the psychoactive properties of only a few cannabinoids. Recent scientific advances coupled with growing public awareness of cannabinoids as a medical commodity drove legislation change and brought about a historic [...] Read more.
Cannabis plant has long been execrated by law in different nations due to the psychoactive properties of only a few cannabinoids. Recent scientific advances coupled with growing public awareness of cannabinoids as a medical commodity drove legislation change and brought about a historic transition where the demand rose over ten-fold in less than five years. On the other hand, the technology required for cannabis processing and the extraction of the most valuable chemical compounds from the cannabis flower remains the bottleneck of processing technology. This paper sheds light on the downstream processing steps and principles involved in producing cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa L. (Hemp) biomass. By categorizing the extraction technology into seed and trichome, we examined and critiqued different pretreatment methods and technological options available for large-scale extraction in both categories. Solvent extraction methods being the main focus, the critical decision-making parameters in each stage, and the applicable current technologies in the field, were discussed. We further examined the factors affecting the cannabinoid transformation that changes the medical functionality of the final cannabinoid products. Based on the current trends, the extraction technologies are continuously being revised and enhanced, yet they still fail to keep up with market demands. Full article
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12 pages, 1513 KiB  
Article
Different Mutations Providing Target Site Resistance to ALS- and ACCase-Inhibiting Herbicides in Echinochloa spp. from Rice Fields
by Ignacio Amaro-Blanco, Yolanda Romano, Jose Antonio Palmerin, Raquel Gordo, Candelario Palma-Bautista, Rafael De Prado and María Dolores Osuna
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 382; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050382 - 23 Apr 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3370
Abstract
Echinochloa spp. is one of the most invasive weeds in rice fields worldwide. Acetolactate synthase (ALS) and acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACCase) inhibiting herbicides are two of the most widely used rice herbicides. However, overuse has led to the resistance evolution of Echinochloa spp. to [...] Read more.
Echinochloa spp. is one of the most invasive weeds in rice fields worldwide. Acetolactate synthase (ALS) and acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACCase) inhibiting herbicides are two of the most widely used rice herbicides. However, overuse has led to the resistance evolution of Echinochloa spp. to penoxsulam (ALS-inhibitor) and cyhalofop-methyl (ACCase-inhibitor). In this work, 137 different Echinochloa spp. populations were collected in different rice fields in Extremadura (western Spain) where lack of control was detected. Target-site based resistance (by sequencing ALS and ACCase gene) and characterization of Echinochloa species at the molecular level (based on PCR-RFLP analyses) were carried out in those populations. Most of the populations studied (111 of 137) belong to the E. oryzicola/E. oryzoides group. Three-point mutations were identified in ALS genes: Pro197Ser, Pro197Thr, and Ser653Asn, the first being the most frequent substitution in resistant plants. In the ACCase gene, the Ile1781Leu substitution was found. In both ALS and ACCase sequencing, evidence of heterozygosity was also observed. To assess whether cross-resistance patterns differed between mutations, two populations belonging to the E. oryzicola/E. oryzoides group had its most frequent mutations (Pro197Ser, population ech3-14 and Ile1781Leu, population ech114-10) chosen to be carried out in a dose-response assay. It was confirmed that Pro197Ser conferred resistance to triazolopyrimidine, imidazolinone, sulfonylurea, and pyrimidinyl benzoate families. On the other hand, the Ile1781Leu change gave resistance to aryloxyphenoxypropionate and cyclohexanedione families. Of the authorized herbicides in rice in Spain, more that 80% belong to these families. It is therefore important that farmers carry out an integrated control system that combines both chemical and non-chemical tools. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Herbicide Physiology and Environmental Fate)
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13 pages, 2149 KiB  
Article
Volatile Organic Compounds from Rice Rhizosphere Bacteria Inhibit Growth of the Pathogen Rhizoctonia solani
by Enzhao Wang, Xiongduo Liu, Zhiyuan Si, Xu Li, Jingjing Bi, Weiling Dong, Mingshun Chen, Sai Wang, Jiayin Zhang, Alin Song and Fenliang Fan
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 368; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040368 - 19 Apr 2021
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3669
Abstract
Rice sheath blight, a fungal disease caused by Rhizoctonia solani, seriously threatens rice production. Some of the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) produced by microbes are inhibitory to the growth of the plant pathogen, and hence may have the potential as environmentally friendly [...] Read more.
Rice sheath blight, a fungal disease caused by Rhizoctonia solani, seriously threatens rice production. Some of the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) produced by microbes are inhibitory to the growth of the plant pathogen, and hence may have the potential as environmentally friendly antifungal substances. However, information on the inhibitory effect of VOCs released by rice rhizosphere bacteria on R. solani is scarce. In this study, bacteria from the rice rhizosphere capable of inhibiting the growth of R. solani via releasing VOCs were screened using a double Petri dish assay. Headspace solid phase microextraction and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC/MS) were used to identify and quantify the VOCs. The contributions of VOCs to the inhibition of the growth of R. solani were estimated by constructing a random forest model, and were verified using pure compounds. Nine strains (i.e., Pseudomonas sp. No. 3, Enterobacter sp. No. 26, Enterobacter sp. No. 34, Pseudomonas sp. No. 35, Ralstonia sp. No. 50, Bacillus sp. No. 62, Arthrobacter sp. No. 146, Brevibacillus sp. No. 2–18, and Paenisporosarcina sp. No. 2–60) showed various inhibition on R. solani growth via VOCs. The inhibitory effect ranged from 7.84% to 100%, with Ralstonia sp. No. 50 completely inhibiting the growth of R. solani. Five VOCs (i.e., benzoic acid ethyl ester, 3-methyl-butanoic acid, 2-ethyl-1-hexanol, 3-methyl-1-butanol, and 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one) identified by random forest model were confirmed to be toxic to R. solani when applied as a pure chemical compound. In particular, benzoic acid ethyl ester, 3-methyl-butanoic acid, and 2-ethyl-1-hexanol were lethal to R. solani. In summary, the rice rhizosphere bacteria (Ralstonia sp. No. 50) and VOCs (benzoic acid ethyl ester, 3-methyl-butanoic acid, and 2-ethyl-1-hexanol) showed potential to be used as new resources for biological control of rice sheath blight. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection, Identification, and Control of Plant Pathogens)
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23 pages, 42300 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Agricultural Land Suitability Based on RS, AHP, and MEA: A Case Study in Jilin Province, China
by Cheng Han, Shengbo Chen, Yan Yu, Zhengyuan Xu, Bingxue Zhu, Xitong Xu and Zibo Wang
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 370; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11040370 - 19 Apr 2021
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4314
Abstract
The suitability evaluation of agricultural land at the regional scale is of great significance for protecting land and water resources and building sustainable agricultural systems. Based on climate, soil, topographical, and surface water resources, land suitability index (LSI) data for maize, rice, and [...] Read more.
The suitability evaluation of agricultural land at the regional scale is of great significance for protecting land and water resources and building sustainable agricultural systems. Based on climate, soil, topographical, and surface water resources, land suitability index (LSI) data for maize, rice, and soybeans are established using an analytical hierarchy process and matter element analysis (AHP–MEA) model in Jilin Province, China. The results show that there is a significant positive linear correlation between the LSI and the measured yield, which indicates that the model has an ideal effect and certain reference and extension significance. The main limiting factors for maize and soybean planting are pH, total nitrogen (TN), available phosphorus (AP), and soil texture, while water shortage limits rice planting. Different spatial structure optimization schemes for planting are established using the LSI and measured yield, along with economic indices. This study shows that the scheme that integrates policy and cost can make full use of land and water resources and promote the economic growth of agriculture. After optimization, the planting areas of maize, rice, and soybeans were 7.22, 2.44, and 0.71 million ha, respectively, representing an increase of 15.71 billion yuan over the agricultural GDP for the existing planting structure. It is expected that this study will provide a basis for follow-up studies on crop cultivation suitability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Digital Agriculture)
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