Electro-Mechanical Actuators for Safety-Critical Aerospace Applications

A special issue of Aerospace (ISSN 2226-4310). This special issue belongs to the section "Aeronautics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (5 January 2023) | Viewed by 34082

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Special Issue Editor

Dipartimento di Ingegneria Civile ed Industriale, Università di Pisa, Pisa, Italy
Interests: aerospace mechatronics; flight control systems; modelling and simulation; control design; diagnostic and prognostic condition-monitoring; experimental testing
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Aircraft electrification is one of the most important and strategic initiatives currently supporting the innovation of the aviation industry. This manifests in the well-known more-electric aircraft concept (with the ultimate aim of achieving the all-electric long-term target), which aims at the gradual replacement of onboard systems based on mechanical, hydraulic, or pneumatic power sources with electrically powered ones, to reduce the weight and costs, optimize the energy, and increase the eco-compatibility and reliability of future aircrafts.

A key technological enabler for pursuing these challenging objectives is electro-mechanical actuation. The applicability of electro-mechanical actuators (EMAs) in aerospace has been proved in terms of dynamic performances, but it still entails several concerns in terms of reliability/safety and operation in a harsh environment. In civil aircrafts, EMAs are often avoided for safety-critical functions (flight controls, brakes, landing gears, and nose wheel steering), essentially because the statistical database on components fault modes is poor.

This Special Issue is thus focused on advancements and innovations in the design, modelling/simulation, architectural definition, reliability/safety analysis, control, condition-monitoring and experimental testing of EMAs developed for safety-critical aerospace applications.

We encourage the submission of research papers on the above subject, as we are strongly interested in works that could contribute to progress toward the objectives of more-electric flights.

Prof. Dr. Gianpietro Di Rito
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • high-fidelity dynamic modelling
  • physics-of-failure modelling
  • fault-tolerant control
  • fail-safe/fail-operative systems
  • jamming-tolerant actuators
  • hardware and analytical redundancy
  • diagnostic condition-monitoring strategies
  • prognostic condition-monitoring strategies
  • fault-detection and isolation
  • failure transient characterization
  • experimental test rigs
  • EMA reliability/safety analysis (FTA and FMECA)
  • innovative designs

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

16 pages, 2868 KiB  
Article
Incremental Nonlinear Dynamic Inversion Attitude Control for Helicopter with Actuator Delay and Saturation
by Shaojie Zhang, Han Zhang and Kun Ji
Aerospace 2023, 10(6), 521; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace10060521 - 01 Jun 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1600
Abstract
In this paper, an incremental nonlinear dynamic inversion (INDI) control scheme is proposed for the attitude tracking of a helicopter with model uncertainties, and actuator delay and saturation constraints. A finite integral compensation based on model reduction is used to compensate the actuator [...] Read more.
In this paper, an incremental nonlinear dynamic inversion (INDI) control scheme is proposed for the attitude tracking of a helicopter with model uncertainties, and actuator delay and saturation constraints. A finite integral compensation based on model reduction is used to compensate the actuator delay, and the proposed scheme can guarantee the semi-globally uniformly ultimately bounded tracking. The overall attitude controller is separated into a rate, an attitude, and a collective pitch controller. The rate and collective pitch controllers combine the proposed method and INDI to enhance the robustness to actuator delay and model uncertainties. Considering the dynamic of physical actuators, pseudo-control hedging (PCH) is introduced both in the rate and attitude controller to improve tracking performance. By using the proposed controller, the helicopter shows good dynamics under the multiple restrictions of the actuators. Full article
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16 pages, 4872 KiB  
Article
Optimization of the Wire Diameter Based on the Analytical Model of the Mean Magnetic Field for a Magnetically Driven Actuator
by Zhangbin Wu, Hongbai Bai, Guangming Xue and Zhiying Ren
Aerospace 2023, 10(3), 270; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace10030270 - 10 Mar 2023
Viewed by 1168
Abstract
A magnetic field induced by an electromagnetic coil is the key variable that determines the performance of a magnetically driven actuator. The applicability of the empirical models of the coil turns, static resistance, and inductance were discussed. Then, the model of the mean [...] Read more.
A magnetic field induced by an electromagnetic coil is the key variable that determines the performance of a magnetically driven actuator. The applicability of the empirical models of the coil turns, static resistance, and inductance were discussed. Then, the model of the mean magnetic field induced by the coil was established analytically. Based on the proposed model, the sinusoidal response and square-wave response were calculated with the wire diameter as the decision variable. The amplitude and phase lag of the sinusoidal response, the time-domain response, steady-state value, and the response time of the square-wave response were discussed under different wire diameters. From the experimental and computational results, the model was verified as the relative errors were acceptably low in computing various responses and characteristic variables. Additionally, the optimization on the wire diameter was carried out for the optimal amplitude and response time. The proposed model will be helpful for the analytical analysis of the mean magnetic field, and the optimization result of the wire diameter under limited space can be employed to improve the performance of a magnetically driven actuator. Full article
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22 pages, 14797 KiB  
Article
Finite Element Method-Based Optimisation of Magnetic Coupler Design for Safe Operation of Hybrid UAVs
by Sami Arslan, Ires Iskender and Tuğba Selcen Navruz
Aerospace 2023, 10(2), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace10020140 - 02 Feb 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1867
Abstract
The integration of compact concepts and advances in permanent-magnet technology improve the safety, usability, endurance, and simplicity of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) while also providing long-term operation without maintenance and larger air gap use. These developments have revealed the demand for the use [...] Read more.
The integration of compact concepts and advances in permanent-magnet technology improve the safety, usability, endurance, and simplicity of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) while also providing long-term operation without maintenance and larger air gap use. These developments have revealed the demand for the use of magnetic couplers to magnetically isolate aircraft engines and starter-generator shafts, allowing contactless torque transmission. This paper explores the design aspects of an active cylindrical-type magnetic coupler based on finite element analyses to achieve an optimum model for hybrid UAVs using a piston engine. The novel model is parameterised in Ansys Maxwell for optimetric solutions, including magnetostatics and transients. The criteria of material selection, coupler types, and topologies are discussed. The Torque-Speed bench is set up for dynamic and static tests. The highest torque density is obtained in the 10-pole configuration with an embrace of 0.98. In addition, the loss of synchronisation caused by the piston engine shaft locking and misalignment in the case of bearing problems is also examined. The magnetic coupler efficiency is above 94% at the maximum speed. The error margin of the numerical simulations is 8% for the Maxwell 2D and 4.5% for 3D. Correction coefficients of 1.2 for the Maxwell 2D and 1.1 for 3D are proposed. Full article
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25 pages, 3258 KiB  
Article
Application of Deep Reinforcement Learning in Reconfiguration Control of Aircraft Anti-Skid Braking System
by Shuchang Liu, Zhong Yang, Zhao Zhang, Runqiang Jiang, Tongyang Ren, Yuan Jiang, Shuang Chen and Xiaokai Zhang
Aerospace 2022, 9(10), 555; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9100555 - 26 Sep 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1624
Abstract
The aircraft anti-skid braking system (AABS) plays an important role in aircraft taking off, taxiing, and safe landing. In addition to the disturbances from the complex runway environment, potential component faults, such as actuators faults, can also reduce the safety and reliability of [...] Read more.
The aircraft anti-skid braking system (AABS) plays an important role in aircraft taking off, taxiing, and safe landing. In addition to the disturbances from the complex runway environment, potential component faults, such as actuators faults, can also reduce the safety and reliability of AABS. To meet the increasing performance requirements of AABS under fault and disturbance conditions, a novel reconfiguration controller based on linear active disturbance rejection control combined with deep reinforcement learning was proposed in this paper. The proposed controller treated component faults, external perturbations, and measurement noise as the total disturbances. The twin delayed deep deterministic policy gradient algorithm (TD3) was introduced to realize the parameter self-adjustments of both the extended state observer and the state error feedback law. The action space, state space, reward function, and network structure for the algorithm training were properly designed, so that the total disturbances could be estimated and compensated for more accurately. The simulation results validated the environmental adaptability and robustness of the proposed reconfiguration controller. Full article
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23 pages, 4872 KiB  
Article
Minimisation of Failure Transients in a Fail-Safe Electro-Mechanical Actuator Employed for the Flap Movables of a High-Speed Helicopter-Plane
by Gianpietro Di Rito, Romain Kovel, Marco Nardeschi, Nicola Borgarelli and Benedetto Luciano
Aerospace 2022, 9(9), 527; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9090527 - 19 Sep 2022
Viewed by 2796
Abstract
The work deals with the model-based characterization of the failure transients of a fail-safe rotary EMA developed by Umbragroup (Italy) for the flap movables of the RACER helicopter-plane by Airbus Helicopters (France). Since the reference application requires quasi-static position-tracking with high disturbance-rejection capability, [...] Read more.
The work deals with the model-based characterization of the failure transients of a fail-safe rotary EMA developed by Umbragroup (Italy) for the flap movables of the RACER helicopter-plane by Airbus Helicopters (France). Since the reference application requires quasi-static position-tracking with high disturbance-rejection capability, the attention is focused on control hardover faults which determine an actuator runaway from the commanded setpoint. To perform the study, a high-fidelity nonlinear model of the EMA is developed from physical first principles and the main features of health-monitoring and closed-loop control functions (integrating the conventional nested loops architecture with a deformation feedback loop enhancing the actuator stiffness) are presented. The EMA model is then validated with experiments by identifying its parameters by ad-hoc tests. Simulation results are finally proposed to characterize the failure transients in worst case scenarios by highlighting the importance of using a specifically designed back-electromotive damper circuitry into the EMA power electronics to limit the position deviation after the fault detection. Full article
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30 pages, 2261 KiB  
Article
Preliminary Sizing of the Electrical Motor and Housing of Electromechanical Actuators Applied on the Primary Flight Control System of Unmanned Helicopters
by Jeremy Roussel, Marc Budinger and Laurent Ruet
Aerospace 2022, 9(9), 473; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9090473 - 25 Aug 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2482
Abstract
Helicopter dronization is expanding, for example, the VSR700 project. This leads to the integration of electromechanical actuators (EMAs) into the primary flight control system (PFCS). The PFCS is in charge of controlling the helicopter flight over its four axes (roll, pitch, yaw, and [...] Read more.
Helicopter dronization is expanding, for example, the VSR700 project. This leads to the integration of electromechanical actuators (EMAs) into the primary flight control system (PFCS). The PFCS is in charge of controlling the helicopter flight over its four axes (roll, pitch, yaw, and vertical). It controls the blade pitch thanks to mechanical kinematics and actuators. For more than 60 years, the actuators have been conventionally using the hydraulic technology. The EMA technology introduction involves the reconsideration of the design practices. Indeed, an EMA is multidisciplinary. Each of its components introduces new design drivers and new inherent technological imperfections (friction, inertia, and losses). This paper presents a methodology to specify and pre-design critical EMAs. The description will be focused on two components: the electrical motor and the housing. This includes a data-driven specification, scaling laws for motor losses estimation, and surrogate modeling for the housing vibratory sizing. The tools are finally applied to two study cases. The first case considers two potential redundant topologies of actuation. The housing sizing shows that one prevails on the other. The second case considers the actuators of helicopter rotors. The electrical motor sizing highlights the importance of designing two separate actuators. Full article
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24 pages, 5733 KiB  
Article
Novel Approach to Fault-Tolerant Control of Inter-Turn Short Circuits in Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors for UAV Propellers
by Aleksander Suti, Gianpietro Di Rito and Roberto Galatolo
Aerospace 2022, 9(8), 401; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9080401 - 26 Jul 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2220
Abstract
This paper deals with the development of a novel fault-tolerant control technique aiming at the diagnosis and accommodation of inter-turn short circuit faults in permanent magnet synchronous motors for lightweight UAV propulsion. The reference motor is driven by a four-leg converter, which can [...] Read more.
This paper deals with the development of a novel fault-tolerant control technique aiming at the diagnosis and accommodation of inter-turn short circuit faults in permanent magnet synchronous motors for lightweight UAV propulsion. The reference motor is driven by a four-leg converter, which can be reconfigured in case of a phase fault by enabling the control of the central point of the motor Y-connection. A crucial design point entails the development of fault detection and isolation (FDI) algorithms capable of minimizing the failure transients and avoiding the short circuit extension. The proposed fault-tolerant control is composed of two sections: the first one applies a novel FDI algorithm for short circuit faults based on the trajectory tracking of the motor current phasor in the Clarke plane; the second one implements the fault accommodation, by applying a reference frame transformation technique to the post-fault commands. The control effectiveness is assessed via nonlinear simulations by characterizing the FDI latency and the post-fault performances. The proposed technique demonstrates excellent potentialities: the FDI algorithm simultaneously detects and isolates the considered faults, even with very limited extensions, during both stationary and unsteady operating conditions. In addition, the proposed accommodation technique is very effective in minimizing the post-fault torque ripples. Full article
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11 pages, 1284 KiB  
Article
An Improved Fault Identification Method for Electromechanical Actuators
by Gaetano Quattrocchi, Pier C. Berri, Matteo D. L. Dalla Vedova and Paolo Maggiore
Aerospace 2022, 9(7), 341; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9070341 - 25 Jun 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1467
Abstract
Adoption of electromechanical actuation systems in aerospace is increasing, and so reliable diagnostic and prognostics schemes are required to ensure safe operations, especially in key, safety-critical systems such as primary flight controls. Furthermore, the use of prognostics methods can increase the system availability [...] Read more.
Adoption of electromechanical actuation systems in aerospace is increasing, and so reliable diagnostic and prognostics schemes are required to ensure safe operations, especially in key, safety-critical systems such as primary flight controls. Furthermore, the use of prognostics methods can increase the system availability during the life cycle and thus reduce costs if implemented in a predictive maintenance framework. In this work, an improvement of an already presented algorithm will be introduced, whose scope is to predict the actual degradation state of a motor in an electromechanical actuator, also providing a temperature estimation. This objective is achieved by using a properly processed back-electromotive force signal and a simple feed-forward neural network. Good prediction of the motor health status is achieved with a small degree of inaccuracy. Full article
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21 pages, 14442 KiB  
Article
Fault-Tolerant Control of a Dual-Stator PMSM for the Full-Electric Propulsion of a Lightweight Fixed-Wing UAV
by Aleksander Suti, Gianpietro Di Rito and Roberto Galatolo
Aerospace 2022, 9(7), 337; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9070337 - 24 Jun 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2282
Abstract
The reliability enhancement of electrical machines is one of the key enabling factors for spreading the full-electric propulsion to next-generation long-endurance UAVs. This paper deals with the fault-tolerant control design of a Full-Electric Propulsion System (FEPS) for a lightweight fixed-wing UAV, in which [...] Read more.
The reliability enhancement of electrical machines is one of the key enabling factors for spreading the full-electric propulsion to next-generation long-endurance UAVs. This paper deals with the fault-tolerant control design of a Full-Electric Propulsion System (FEPS) for a lightweight fixed-wing UAV, in which a dual-stator Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine (PMSM) drives a twin-blade fixed-pitch propeller. The FEPS is designed to operate with both stators delivering power (active/active status) during climb, to maximize performances, while only one stator is used (active/stand-by status) in cruise and landing, to enhance reliability. To assess the fault-tolerant capabilities of the system, as well as to evaluate the impacts of its failure transients on the UAV performances, a detailed model of the FEPS (including three-phase electrical systems, digital regulators, drivetrain compliance and propeller loads) is integrated with the model of the UAV longitudinal dynamics, and the system response is characterized by injecting a phase-to-ground fault in the motor during different flight manoeuvres. The results show that, even after a stator failure, the fault-tolerant control permits the UAV to hold altitude and speed during cruise, to keep on climbing (even with reduced performances), and to safely manage the flight termination (requiring to stop and align the propeller blades with the UAV wing), by avoiding potentially dangerous torque ripples and structural vibrations. Full article
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22 pages, 4687 KiB  
Article
A Preliminary Top-Down Parametric Design of Electromechanical Actuator Position Control
by Jean-Charles Maré
Aerospace 2022, 9(6), 314; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9060314 - 09 Jun 2022
Viewed by 2027
Abstract
A top-down process is proposed and virtually validated for the position control of electromechanical actuators (EMA) that use conventional cascade controllers. It aims at facilitating the early design phases of a project by providing a straightforward mean that requires simple algebraic calculations only, [...] Read more.
A top-down process is proposed and virtually validated for the position control of electromechanical actuators (EMA) that use conventional cascade controllers. It aims at facilitating the early design phases of a project by providing a straightforward mean that requires simple algebraic calculations only, from the specified performance and the top-level EMA design parameters. This makes it possible to include realistic control considerations in the preliminary sizing and optimisation phase. The position, speed and current controllers are addressed in sequence. This top-down process is based on the generation and use of charts that define the optimal position gain, speed loop second-order damping factor and natural frequency with respect to the specified performance of the position loop. For each loop, the control design formally specifies the required dynamics and the digital implementation of the following inner loop. A noncausal flow chart summarises the equations used and the interdependencies between data. This potentially allows changing which ones are used as inputs. The process is virtually validated using the example of a flight control actuator. This is achieved with resort to the simulation of a realistic lumped-parameter model, which includes any significant functional and parasitic effects. The virtual tests are run following a bottom–up approach to highlight the pursuit and rejection performance. Using low-, medium- and high-excitation magnitudes, they show the robustness of the controllers against nonlinearities. Finally, the simulation results confirm the soundness of the proposed process. Full article
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15 pages, 5240 KiB  
Article
Multi-Mode Shape Control of Active Compliant Aerospace Structures Using Anisotropic Piezocomposite Materials in Antisymmetric Bimorph Configuration
by Xiaoming Wang, Xinhan Hu, Chengbin Huang and Wenya Zhou
Aerospace 2022, 9(4), 195; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9040195 - 06 Apr 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1688
Abstract
The mission performance of future advanced aerospace structures can be synthetically improved via active shape control utilizing piezoelectric materials. Multiple work modes are required. Bending/twisting mode control receives special attention for many classic aerospace structures, such as active reflector systems, active blades, and [...] Read more.
The mission performance of future advanced aerospace structures can be synthetically improved via active shape control utilizing piezoelectric materials. Multiple work modes are required. Bending/twisting mode control receives special attention for many classic aerospace structures, such as active reflector systems, active blades, and compliant morphing wings. Piezoelectric fiber composite (Piezocomposite) material features in-plane anisotropic actuation, which is very suitable for multiple work modes. In this study, two identical macro-fiber composite (MFC) actuators of the F1 type were bonded to the base plate structure in an “antisymmetric angle-ply bimorph configuration” in order to achieve independent bending/twisting shape control. In terms of the finite element model and homogenization strategy, the locations of bimorph MFCs were determined by considering the effect of trade-off control capabilities on the bending and twisting shapes. The modal characteristics were investigated via both experimental and theoretical approaches. The experimental tests implied that the shape control accuracy was heavily reduced due to various uncertainties and nonlinearities, including hysteresis and the creep effect of the actuators, model errors, and external disturbances. A multi-mode feedback control law was designed and the experimental tests indicated that synthetic (independent and coupled) bending/twisting deformations were achieved with improved shape accuracy. This study provides a feasible multi-mode shape control approach with high surface accuracy, especially by employing piezocomposite materials. Full article
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21 pages, 10509 KiB  
Article
Design and Simulation Analysis of an Electromagnetic Damper for Reducing Shimmy in Electrically Actuated Nose Wheel Steering Systems
by Chenfei She, Ming Zhang, Yibo Ge, Liming Tang, Haifeng Yin and Gang Peng
Aerospace 2022, 9(2), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9020113 - 19 Feb 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2841
Abstract
Based on the technical platform of electrically actuated nose wheel steering systems, a new type of damping shimmy reduction technology is developed to break through the limitations of traditional hydraulic damping shimmy reduction methods, and an electrically actuated nose wheel steering structure scheme [...] Read more.
Based on the technical platform of electrically actuated nose wheel steering systems, a new type of damping shimmy reduction technology is developed to break through the limitations of traditional hydraulic damping shimmy reduction methods, and an electrically actuated nose wheel steering structure scheme is proposed. The mathematical model of the electromagnetic damper is established, the derivation of skin depth, damping torque and damping coefficient is completed, and the design of the shape and size of the electromagnetic damper is combined with the derivation results and the technical index of shimmy reduction. The electromagnetic field finite element simulation results show that the mathematical modeling method of the electromagnetic damper has good accuracy, and its application to the shimmy reduction module of the electrically actuated nose wheel steering system is also feasible and superior. Finally, the key factors influencing the performance of electromagnetic damper shimmy reduction are studied and analyzed, thus forming a complete electromagnetic damper shimmy reduction technology for the electrically actuated system, and laying the foundation for the design of novel all-electric aircraft and landing gear. Full article
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22 pages, 38724 KiB  
Article
Reliability-Oriented Configuration Optimization of More Electrical Control Systems
by Zirui Liao, Shaoping Wang, Jian Shi, Dong Liu and Rentong Chen
Aerospace 2022, 9(2), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9020085 - 06 Feb 2022
Viewed by 1943
Abstract
More electrical vehicles adopt dissimilar redundant control systems with dissimilar power supplies and dissimilar actuators to achieve high reliability and safety, but this introduces more intricacy into the configuration design. Currently, it is difficult to identify the optimum configuration via the conventional trial-and-error [...] Read more.
More electrical vehicles adopt dissimilar redundant control systems with dissimilar power supplies and dissimilar actuators to achieve high reliability and safety, but this introduces more intricacy into the configuration design. Currently, it is difficult to identify the optimum configuration via the conventional trial-and-error approach within an acceptable timeframe. Hence, it is imperative to discover novel methods for the configuration design of more electrical vehicles. This paper introduced the design specification of more electric vehicles and investigated the contribution of different kinds of actuators, presenting a new multi-objective configuration optimization approach on the foundation of system reliability, weight, power, and cost. By adopting the non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm-II (NSGA-II), the Pareto optimization design set was obtained. Then, the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) was introduced to make a comprehensive decision on the schemes in the Pareto set and determine the optimal system configuration. Eventually, numerical results indicated that the reliability of our designed configuration increased by 5.89% and 55.34%, respectively, compared with dual redundancies and single redundancy configurations, which verified the effectiveness and practicability of the proposed method. Full article
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