Taking Stock of Fruit and Vegetable Consumption in Canada: Trends and Challenges
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Produce Consumption
3. Methodology
4. Results
4.1. British Columbians and Ontarians Are Produce Lovers
4.2. Frozen/Fresh Dilemma and Local Focus
4.3. Food Safety Concerns
4.4. Health Benefits
5. Discussion
6. Strengths and Limitations
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. SURVEY: Do Canadians Eat Enough Fruits and Vegetables?
- (1)
- Grocery store/supermarket;
- (2)
- Convenience store;
- (3)
- Local farmers’ market;
- (4)
- Online
- (5)
- Specialty store;
- (6)
- I grow my own, mostly;
- (7)
- I don’t buy produce.
- (1)
- Each day;
- (2)
- Every other day;
- (3)
- Once a week;
- (4)
- Rarely;
- (5)
- Never.
- (1)
- Costs;
- (2)
- Health benefits are unclear;
- (3)
- Too much work to prepare;
- (4)
- Not very tasty;
- (5)
- Not sure how to prepare/cook them.
- (1)
- Food/cooking websites;
- (2)
- Nutritionists;
- (3)
- Dietitians;
- (4)
- Doctors;
- (5)
- Academic research;
- (6)
- Fitness experts/coahes;
- (7)
- Cookbooks;
- (8)
- Canada’s Food Guide;
- (9)
- Meal kit providers;
- (10)
- Celebrities;
- (11)
- Social media.
References
- Chenarides, L.; Richards, T.J.; Rickard, B. COVID-19 impact on fruit and vegetable markets: One year later. Can. J. Agric. Econ./Rev. Can. D’agroeconomie 2021, 69, 203–214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Harrison, S.; Brassard, D.; Lemieux, S.; Lamarche, B. Consumption and Sources of Saturated Fatty Acids According to the 2019 Canada Food Guide: Data from the 2015 Canadian Community Health Survey. Nutrients 2019, 11, 1964. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Asher, K.E.; Doucet, S.; Luke, A. Registered dietitians’ perceptions and use of the plant-based recommendations in the 2019 Canada’s Food Guide. J. Hum. Nutr. Diet. 2021, 34, 715–723. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jessri, M.; L’Abbe, M.R. The time for an updated Canadian Food Guide has arrived. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 2015, 40, 854–857. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mulligan, C.; Franco-Arellano, B.; Ahmed, M.; Vergeer, L.; Dickinson, K.; L’Abbé, M.R. Comparing how Canadian packaged food products align with the 2007 and 2019 versions of Canada’s Food Guide. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 2021, 46, 934–944. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Capicio, M.; Panesar, S.; Keller, H.; Gramlich, L.; Popeski, N.; Basualdo-Hammond, C.; Atkins, M.; Chan, C.B. Nutrition Risk, Resilience and Effects of a Brief Education Intervention among Community-Dwelling Older Adults during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Alberta, Canada. Nutrients 2022, 14, 1110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hosseini, S.H.; Farag, M.; Hosseini, S.Z.; Vatanparast, H. Behavioral factors are perhaps more important than income in determining diet quality in Canada. SSM-Popul. Health 2021, 17, 101001. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Birch, L.L. Development of food preferences. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 1999, 19, 41–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Charlebois, S.; Music, J.; Faires, S. The Impact of COVID-19 on Canada’s Food Literacy: Results of a Cross-National Survey. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 5485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hu, D.; Huang, J.; Wang, Y.; Zhang, D.; Qu, Y. Fruits and Vegetables Consumption and Risk of Stroke. Stroke 2014, 45, 1613–1619. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Franco-Arellano, B.; Kim, M.A.; Vandevijvere, S.; Bernstein, J.T.; Labonté, M.-È.; Mulligan, C.; L’Abbé, M.R. Assessment of Packaged Foods and Beverages Carrying Nutrition Marketing against Canada’s Food Guide Recommendations. Nutrients 2019, 11, 411. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Clark, L.F.; Bogdan, A.M. Plant-based foods in Canada: Information, trust and closing the commercialization gap. Br. Food J. 2019, 121, 2535–2550. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Clark, L.F.; Bogdan, A.-M. The Role of Plant-Based Foods in Canadian Diets: A Survey Examining Food Choices, Motivations and Dietary Identity. J. Food Prod. Mark. 2019, 25, 355–377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gravely, E.; Fraser, E. Transitions on the shopping floor: Investigating the role of Canadian supermarkets in alternative protein consumption. Appetite 2018, 130, 146–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krueger, H.; Koot, J.; Andres, E. The economic benefits of fruit and vegetable consumption in Canada. Can. J. Public Health 2017, 108, e152–e161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ekwaru, J.P.; Ohinmaa, A.; Loehr, S.; Setayeshgar, S.; Thanh, N.X.; Veugelers, P.J. The economic burden of inadequate consumption of vegetables and fruit in Canada. Public Health Nutr. 2017, 20, 515–523. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Allen, K.J.; Kovacevic, J.; Cancarevic, A.; Wood, J.; Xu, J.; Gill, B.; Allen, J.K.; Mesak, L.R. Microbiological survey of imported produce available at retail across Canada. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2013, 162, 135–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jung, D.; Rubin, J.E. Identification of antimicrobial resistant bacteria from plant-based food products imported into Canada. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2020, 319, 108509. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Atkinson, S.A.; Maran, A.; Dempsey, K.; Perreault, M.; Vanniyasingam, T.; Phillips, S.M.; Hutton, E.K.; Mottola, M.F.; Wahoush, O.; Xie, F.; et al. Be Healthy in Pregnancy (BHIP): A Randomized Controlled Trial of Nutrition and Exercise Intervention from Early Pregnancy to Achieve Recommended Gestational Weight Gain. Nutrients 2022, 14, 810. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Creutzinger, K.; Pempek, J.; Habing, G.; Proudfoot, K.; Locke, S.; Wilson, D.; Renaud, D. Perspectives on the Management of Surplus Dairy Calves in the United States and Canada. Front. Vet. Sci. 2021, 8, 661453. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sousa-Gallagher, M.J.; Tank, A.; Sousa, R. 14-Emerging Technologies to Extend the Shelf Life and Stability of Fruits and Vegetables. In Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition; Subramaniam, P., Ed.; Woodhead Publishing: Sawston, UK, 2016; pp. 399–430. ISBN 978-0-08-100435-7. [Google Scholar]
- González, H. Specialization on a global scale and agrifood vulnerability: 30 years of export agriculture in Mexico. Dev. Stud. Res. 2014, 1, 295–310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- James, W.P.T.; Nelson, M.; Ralph, A.; Leather, S. Socioeconomic determinants of health: The contribution of nutrition to inequalities in health. BMJ 1997, 314, 1545. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Brookie, K.L.; Best, G.I.; Conner, T.S. Intake of Raw Fruits and Vegetables Is Associated With Better Mental Health Than Intake of Processed Fruits and Vegetables. Front. Psychol. 2018, 9, 487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Johnson, C.M.; Sharkey, J.R.; Dean, W.R. Eating Behaviors and Social Capital Are Associated With Fruit and Vegetable Intake Among Rural Adults. J. Hunger Environ. Nutr. 2010, 5, 302–315. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Feinstein, L.; Sabates, R.; Sorhaindo, A.; Rogers, I.; Herrick, D.; Northstone, K.; Emmett, P. Dietary patterns related to attainment in school: The importance of early eating patterns. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 2008, 62, 734–739. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ramsbotham, L.D.; Gesch, B. Crime and Nourishment: Cause for a rethink? Prison. Serv. J. 2009, 182, 3–9. [Google Scholar]
- Jarman, M.; Vashi, N.; Angus, A.; Bell, R.C.; Giesbrecht, G.F. Development of a diet quality index to assess adherence to Canadian dietary recommendations in 3-year-old children. Public Health Nutr. 2019, 23, 385–393. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dauchet, L.; Montaye, M.; Ruidavets, J.-B.; Arveiler, D.; Kee, F.; Bingham, A.; Ferrières, J.; Haas, B.; Evans, A.; Ducimetière, P.; et al. Association between the frequency of fruit and vegetable consumption and cardiovascular disease in male smokers and non-smokers. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2010, 64, 578–586. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gómez-Donoso, C.; Sacks, G.; Vanderlee, L.; Hammond, D.; White, C.M.; Nieto, C.; Bes-Rastrollo, M.; Cameron, A.J. Public support for healthy supermarket initiatives focused on product placement: A multi-country cross-sectional analysis of the 2018 International Food Policy Study. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2021, 18, 78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dorais, M. Organic production of vegetables: State of the art and challenges. Can. J. Plant Sci. 2007, 87, 1055–1066. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maldonado-Siman, E.; Bai, L.; Ramírez-Valverde, R.; Gong, S.; Rodríguez-de Lara, R. Comparison of implementing HACCP systems of exporter Mexican and Chinese meat enterprises. Food Control 2014, 38, 109–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Porat, R.; Lichter, A.; Terry, L.A.; Harker, R.; Buzby, J. Postharvest losses of fruit and vegetables during retail and in consumers’ homes: Quantifications, causes, and means of prevention. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 2018, 139, 135–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Scheibehenne, B.; Miesler, L.; Todd, P.M. Fast and frugal food choices: Uncovering individual decision heuristics. Appetite 2007, 49, 578–589. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Tobler, C.; Visschers, V.H.M.; Siegrist, M. Eating green. Consumers’ willingness to adopt ecological food consumption behaviors. Appetite 2011, 57, 674–682. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Anesbury, Z.; Greenacre, L.; Wilson, A.L.; Huang, A. Patterns of fruit and vegetable buying behaviour in the United States and India. Int. J. Mark. Res. 2018, 60, 14–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lombart, C.; Millan, E.; Normand, J.-M.; Verhulst, A.; Labbé-Pinlon, B.; Moreau, G. Consumer perceptions and purchase behavior toward imperfect fruits and vegetables in an immersive virtual reality grocery store. J. Retail. Consum. Serv. 2019, 48, 28–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Roberts, B.; Felix Ocaka, K.; Browne, J.; Oyok, T.; Sondorp, E. Factors associated with the health status of internally displaced persons in northern Uganda. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 2009, 63, 227–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Chambers, S.; Lobb, A.; Butler, L.; Harvey, K.; Bruce Traill, W. Local, national and imported foods: A qualitative study. Appetite 2007, 49, 208–213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Országhová, D.; Kozelová, D.; Fiľa, M.; Čmiková, Z. Quantitative indicators of fruit and vegetable consumption. Potravinarstvo 2015, 9, 487–493. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Pollard, C.M.; Miller, M.R.; Daly, A.M.; Crouchley, K.E.; O’Donoghue, K.J.; Lang, A.J.; Binns, C.W. Increasing fruit and vegetable consumption: Success of the Western Australian Go for 2&5®campaign. Public Health Nutr. 2008, 11, 314–320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Padel, S.; Foster, C. Exploring the gap between attitudes and behaviour. Br. Food J. 2005, 107, 606–625. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chung, S.W.C. How effective are common household preparations on removing pesticide residues from fruit and vegetables? A review. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2018, 98, 2857–2870. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- MUTENGWE, M.T.; CHIDAMBA, L.; KORSTEN, L. Monitoring Pesticide Residues in Fruits and Vegetables at Two of the Biggest Fresh Produce Markets in Africa. J. Food Prot. 2016, 79, 1938–1945. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Denis, N.; Zhang, H.; Leroux, A.; Trudel, R.; Bietlot, H. Prevalence and trends of bacterial contamination in fresh fruits and vegetables sold at retail in Canada. Food Control 2016, 67, 225–234. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wallace, T.C.; Bailey, R.L.; Blumberg, J.B.; Burton-Freeman, B.; Chen, C.O.; Crowe-White, K.M.; Drewnowski, A.; Hooshmand, S.; Johnson, E.; Lewis, R.; et al. Fruits, vegetables, and health: A comprehensive narrative, umbrella review of the science and recommendations for enhanced public policy to improve intake. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2020, 60, 2174–2211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lebenbaum, M.; Zaric, G.S.; Thind, A.; Sarma, S. Trends in obesity and multimorbidity in Canada. Prev. Med. 2018, 116, 173–179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Statistics Canada. Area, Production and Farm Gate Value of Marketed Fruits. Available online: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3210036401 (accessed on 15 November 2022).
- Statistics Canada Income of individuals by age group, sex and income source, Canada, provinces and selected census metropolitan areas. Available online: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1110023901 (accessed on 23 March 2022).
- Herman, D.R.; Harrison, G.G.; Jenks, E. Choices Made by Low-Income Women Provided with an Economic Supplement for Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Purchase. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 2006, 106, 740–744. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moran, A.; Thorndike, A.; Franckle, R.; Boulos, R.; Doran, H.; Fulay, A.; Greene, J.; Blue, D.; Block, J.P.; Rimm, E.B.; et al. Financial Incentives Increase Purchases Of Fruit And Vegetables Among Lower-Income Households With Children. Health Aff. 2019, 38, 1557–1566. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Phipps, E.J.; Braitman, L.E.; Stites, S.D.; Singletary, S.B.; Wallace, S.L.; Hunt, L.; Axelrod, S.; Glanz, K.; Uplinger, N. Impact of a Rewards-Based Incentive Program on Promoting Fruit and Vegetable Purchases. Am. J. Public Health 2014, 105, 166–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smith, L.P.; Ng, S.W.; Popkin, B.M. Trends in US home food preparation and consumption: Analysis of national nutrition surveys and time use studies from 1965–1966 to 2007–2008. Nutr. J. 2013, 12, 45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Statistics Canada. Health Characteristics, Annual Estimates. Available online: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1310009601 (accessed on 15 November 2022).
- Statistics Canada. Food Availability. 2020. Available online: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/210531/dq210531c-eng.htm (accessed on 31 May 2021).
- Pinstrup-Andersen, P.; de Londoño, N.R.; Hoover, E. The Impact of Increasing Food Supply on Human Nutrition: Implications for Commodity Priorities in Agricultural Research and Policy. Am. J. Agric. Econ. 1976, 58, 133–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pindyck, R.S.; Rotemberg, J.J. The Excess Co-Movement of Commodity Prices. Econ. J. 1990, 100, 1173–1189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Roberts, M.J.; Schlenker, W. Identifying Supply and Demand Elasticities of Agricultural Commodities: Implications for the US Ethanol Mandate. Am. Econ. Rev. 2013, 103, 2265–2295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dodds, R.; Holmes, M.; Arunsopha, V.; Chin, N.; Le, T.; Maung, S.; Shum, M. Consumer Choice and Farmers’ Markets. J. Agric. Environ. Ethics 2013, 27, 397–416. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barbe, G.; Topolansky, F.; von Dewitz, P.; Triay, M.; Gonzalez, M. Understanding Consumer Behaviour to Develop Competitive Advantage: A Case Study Exploring the Attitudes of German Consumers towards Fruits with Cosmetic Flaws. Int. J. Acad. Res. Bus. Soc. Sci. 2017, 7, 554–580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Provinces | Percentage of Consumers Only Buying Locally Grown Produce | Percentage of Consumers Eating Recommended Produce Amount Every Day, As Per CFG (Proper Proportion) |
---|---|---|
Prince Edward Island | 39.5% (1) | 11.6% (10) |
British Columbia | 27.9% (5) | 31.4% (1) |
Nova Scotia | 30.7% (2) | 25.7% (7) |
Quebec | 30.7% (2) | 30.7% (3) |
Ontario | 29.2% (4) | 31.0% (2) |
Alberta | 21.5% (7) | 27.1% (5) |
New Brunswick | 22.6% (6) | 21.3% (8) |
Newfoundland and Labrador | 20.4% (8) | 19.7% (9) |
Manitoba | 20.1% (9) | 29.6% (4) |
Saskatchewan | 17.5% (10) | 27.1% (5) |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Charlebois, S.; Music, J.; Rupasinghe, H.P.V. Taking Stock of Fruit and Vegetable Consumption in Canada: Trends and Challenges. Dietetics 2023, 2, 23-33. https://doi.org/10.3390/dietetics2010002
Charlebois S, Music J, Rupasinghe HPV. Taking Stock of Fruit and Vegetable Consumption in Canada: Trends and Challenges. Dietetics. 2023; 2(1):23-33. https://doi.org/10.3390/dietetics2010002
Chicago/Turabian StyleCharlebois, Sylvain, Janet Music, and H. P. Vasantha Rupasinghe. 2023. "Taking Stock of Fruit and Vegetable Consumption in Canada: Trends and Challenges" Dietetics 2, no. 1: 23-33. https://doi.org/10.3390/dietetics2010002