Hygiene, Volume 2, Issue 4 (December 2022) – 10 articles

Over the past two centuries since its independence in 1847, Liberia has made significant progress in building an integrated public health system designed to serve its population. Despite a prolonged period of civil conflict (1990–2003) and the emergence of the 2014–2016 Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) that crippled its already weakened health system, Liberia was able to re-emerge, making significant strides and gains in rebuilding and strengthening its health infrastructure and systems. Lessons learnt from the EVD epidemic have led to developments such as the newly established National Public Health Institute of Liberia (NPHIL) and several tertiary public health institutions to meet the growing demands of a skilled workforce equipped to combat existing and emerging health problems and/crisis, including informing the more recent COVID-19 response. This article delineated and documented the historical efforts made towards establishing public health interventions such as infrastructures and systems of the past, and how these structures and systems became the foundation and pillars of the current resilient health system. This paper highlighted some of the key crises and interventions deployed, and some of the historical public health champions, laws, and policies that aided in strengthening the public health systems then and now. It is expected that in addition this paper can be used as a guide for further or future research. Full article

Corrosive surgical instruments are routinely observed in central sterile services departments around the world. In addition to other risks, they can harbor microorganisms in the form of biofilms. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate whether biofilms intentionally formed at corrosion points on surgical instruments are removable by manual and automated cleaning followed by sterilization. Laboratory experiments were performed where samples of corroded surgical instruments in use in practice were evaluated for biofilm presence using a scanning electron microscope. No biofilms were observed in the samples subjected to manual and automated cleaning, nor in the samples in which there was no intentional biofilm formation. Residual organic matter without the presence of microorganisms was observed. Full article

While vaccination is an aid, at least temporarily, for all emerging infectious diseases, not just COVID-19, fair distribution is an issue. Vaccine distribution to smokers is one such example. The provision of vaccine preference to smokers is consistent with the maximum life-saving principle and is justified on utilitarian grounds. However, the following five possible objections can be presented: (1) self-responsibility for smoking; (2) support from non-smokers; (3) preference for those who maintain social function; (4) identification of smokers and inducement to smoking behavior; (5) consideration for passive smokers. However, arguments against prioritizing vaccination based on self-responsibility downplay the social factors of smoking. (1) Smokers should be provided with treatment, not punishment. (2) To understand non-smokers and enhance social cohesion, communitarian explanations based on the reciprocity of care should be carefully provided to non-smokers. (3) The principle of maintaining social functioning does not supersede the principle of maximum life-saving. (4) Support for smokers should be based on self-reporting. (5) Severe cases of COVID-19 caused by passive smoking are among the most important cases to avoid. The extensive implementation of testing should actively identify victims of passive smoking. This will be evidence of the damage caused by passive smoking. Full article

Benzalkonium chloride (BAC) is a chlorine-based chemical compound with proven antimicrobial properties against bacteria, viruses, and fungi, depending on the length of the alkyl chain. It can be used as a biocide, as a cationic surfactant, and as a phase transfer agent. The aim of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of commercial cleaning agents for sanitary areas Bis duo Active (BDA) with BAC as an active compound in working concentrations of 5% and 20% on the destruction of bacterial biofilm formed on ceramic tiles. A biofilm of Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium, and Listeria monocytogenes were grown on ceramic tiles with dimensions of 2.5 × 2.5 cm over 24 h. These plates were then treated with working concentrations of BAC for 10 min. After washing, ATP bioluminescence was measured with a luminometer, CFU/cm² was determined and the total biomass reduction was measured after crystal-violet staining. Both working concentrations of benzalkonium chloride proved to be very effective in destroying the created bacterial biofilm on ceramic tiles. Both treatments caused a reduction in total bacteria number of up to 3.12 log₁₀CFU/cm², followed by a reduction in total biomass up to circa (ca.) 64%. Inhibition rates varied from ca. 28% to ca. 99%, depending on the method and concentration used. Mechanical cleaning prior or after treatment with BAC is essential to improve biofilm destruction. All methods used in this study are effective for the determination of the anti-biofilm activity of BAC. Further analyses are needed. Full article

Background: Although the World Health Organization recommends 100% willingness for blood donation, the percentage of blood collected from willing blood donors and the average annual blood collection rate is extremely low in Ethiopia. Adults can serve as an essential pool formeeting the demand of safe blood. Thus, this study is aimed at examining willingness and its associated factors for blood donation among the adult population in Gondar town, Northwest Ethiopia. Methods: A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted on548 respondents from 1–30 October2021. Multistage sampling techniques were used to select the study participants. The data were collected using an interviewer-administered structured questionnaire. Epi-data version 4.6 and SPSS version 23 software was used for data entry and analysis, respectively. A binary logistic regression (bivariable and multivariable) was performed to identify the statistically significant variables. Results: Less than half, 45.3% (95% CI: 41.4, 49.9), of the study participants hadthe willingness to donate blood. Participants who were renters of their own houses [AOR: 3.19; (95% CI: 2.09, 4.62)], had a history of blood donation practice [AOR: 1.90(95% CI: 1.16, 3.19)], had witnessed blood being donated [AOR: 2.56 (95% CI:1.65, 6.95)], had a history of relatives who have died through blood loss [AOR: 2.28 (95% CI:1.19, 4.36)], and had good knowledge [AOR: 2.23; (95% CI: 1.49, 3.34)] were more willing to donate blood, with these factors being the significant predictors. Conclusions: Generally, willingness towards blood donation is low in the study area. In order to increase community willingness to donate blood, healthcare providers, national blood banks, and transfusion agencies should design strategies to promote and motivate their communities. In addition to this, participants should receive information on the health benefits of donating blood, the volume of blood donated, and the number of patients benefiting from a single unit of blood donated. Full article

(1) Background: The COVID-19 pandemic has put essential workers at high risk for contracting the disease. This study documents situational compliance with public health recommendations such as masking and social distancing among rural and urban Latinx families, with the goal of understanding change over time in COVID-19 risk reduction behaviors. (2) Methods: Respondents for 67 rural families and 44 urban families responded to repeated telephone surveys at three time points in the first year of the pandemic, providing data on use of masks and social distancing by themselves and family members while interacting with others at home, work, and in the community. Cumulative logistic regression models were employed to compare changes in risk behaviors between rural and urban groups over time. (3) Results: While group descriptive results indicated behaviors that posed low risk at each time point, regression models revealed greater change between time points for rural than urban residents. Rural residents also had gendered patterns. (4) Conclusions: Patterns of change appear to reflect structural issues such as seasonal labor demand and gender roles more than pandemic fatigue or changing public health recommendations. The findings suggest that structural factors play a role in individuals complying with public health prevention measures for COVID-19. Full article

The coronavirus of severe acute respiratory syndrome 2 (SARS-CoV-2), known as COVID-19, has spread rapidly around the world, leading to social detachment and the home office replacing face-to-face work. The performance of police officers faces limitations to the new requirements while recognizing the need to ensure health and quality of life. Thus, the present study aimed to verify the panorama of the spread of COVID-19 among federal police officers by analyzing the presence of symptoms, individual protection measures (IPM), and suspect screening measures (SSM). For this, data were collected through a questionnaire customized for this situation and measurements of clinical data from 56 federal police officers in the municipality of Marília (São Paulo, Brazil) were performed. The mean value of the body mass index (27.2 ± 5.4 kg/m²) suggests overweight and obesity, in addition to the presence of hypertension at 16.1%, diabetes at 3.6%, asthma at 3.6%, and obesity at 25%, which represents an important risk of complications for COVID-19. The use of a mask is the most frequent IPM (96.4%) and most of the sample has used a cloth or home mask (90.9%). However, 47.3% have not performed the correct cleaning of the masks and 5.5% have not taken any care with mask hygiene. In conclusion, although the IPM was adopted by most of the research participants, some did not adopt important measures such as wearing a mask, which can increase the risk of contamination and contagion due to the work environment and routine. The highest risk factors observed were obesity and hypertension, but even in these conditions, the absence of important IPMs was still verified. Full article

Oral hygiene maintenance is important to maintain optimal oral health. Oral health is affected by dysbiotic oral microflora in the dental plaque. Virulent factors of pathogenic organisms, such as gingipain, are responsible for tissue degradation and host tissue invasion in periodontal disease. We sought to investigate the distribution of gingipain genotypes (rgpA and kgp) of P. gingivalis in patients with chronic periodontitis and healthy individuals. The study included individuals positive for P. gingivalis, with 95 samples in the chronic periodontitis (CP) group and 35 samples in the healthy (H) group. We found that kgp-I and kgp-II types were prevalent in 67.36% and 32.64% of the samples in the CP group, respectively. In the H group, kgp-II was highly prevalent (97.14%). The rgpA genotype, type A was found in 78.95% and 82.85% of the samples in the CP and H group, respectively. The mean level of PD and CAL were increased in the presence of kgp-I and decreased in the presence of kgp-II. The mean level of P. gingivalis was increased in the presence of kgp-I and rgpA, type A. Our results show that kgp-I and kgp-II are strongly associated with disease and health condition, respectively. Full article

The COVID-19 pandemic has contributed to anxiety and depression in many communities across the United States. Here, we have focused on a sample of Houston-based Middle Eastern and North African (MENA) residents and assessed the prevalence of anxiety and depression in this community. The 7-item Generalized Anxiety Disorder and the 9-item Patient Health Questionnaires were used to identify the prevalence and severity of anxiety and depression, respectively. A sociodemographic, general health, and COVID-19 survey was used for a multivariable logistic regression model to determine predictors of anxiety and depression. The outcome of interest was “minimal/mild” versus “moderate/severe” anxiety and depression. A total of 368 participants completed the survey, with 24.73% reporting “moderate/severe” anxiety and 31.79% reporting “moderate/severe” depression. Male participants were less likely (OR = 0.29, 95% CI = 0.12, 0.75) to have “moderate/severe” anxiety compared to females. Respondents with self-reported depression were more likely (OR = 3.41, 95% CI = 1.33, 8.83) to have “moderate/severe” depression. Participants who reported having “Excellent/Good knowledge” about the prevention of COVID-19 spread were less likely (OR = 0.37, 95% CI = 0.15, 0.93) to have “moderate/severe” depression, and less likely (OR = 0.22, 95% CI = 0.07, 0.64) to have “moderate/severe” anxiety, compared to those who had “average/poor/terrible” knowledge. Identified predictors may be critical for designing culturally sensitive interventions to improve the healthcare of MENA Americans. Full article

The intestinal microbiota plays an important role in the homeostasis of the intestinal tract, and the fact that exercise could have an impact on its functionality is currently the subject of various studies. Exercise is used as a strong preventive and treatment strategy in numerous chronic diseases, influencing metabolism, immunity, and physiological functions. Some recent studies provide information on exercise as a factor that could favor the growth of beneficial species and increase the diversity of the intestinal microbiota. However, the difficulty in determining the true effect of exercise is only due to the confounding influence of lifestyle and dietary habits. Regardless, there is still interest in the implications of the gut microbiota for elite sports because the details are considered crucial for success in different competitions. This narrative review tries to collect the information available in the literature on the role that exercise plays in the modulation of the balance of the intestinal microbiota. Full article