1. Background
Vegetation can have a beneficial effect on slope stability and erosion due to the reinforcement properties of plant roots, vertically anchoring the uppermost soil to the underlying slope. In many cases, roots can provide a sustainable alternative to soil nails, geosynthetics and retaining walls, reinforcing slopes against shallow failure [
1,
2,
3]. The role of root vegetation in providing additional slope strength can be divided into two distinct categories: mechanical and hydrological effects. Mechanical reinforcement is supplied by the tensile strength of the roots, adding cohesive strength to the soil mass through an increase in the apparent cohesion, known as root cohesion (
) [
4,
5]. Typical observations of the apparent root cohesion range from 1 kPa to 17.5 kPa.
The use of vegetation for slope reinforcement has been widely implemented for a variety of plants including grass, shrubs and trees. Although these effects have often been assessed in a qualitative manner, a number of pioneering studies were conducted in the 1960s with the purpose of quantifying the impact of vegetation on slope stability [
6,
7,
8]. In contrast to soil cohesion, the internal friction angle remains largely unaffected by the presence of roots, due to the predominantly random orientation of root structures [
9]. In many cases, root reinforcement can also reduce the formation of tension cracks in the slope surface [
10,
11,
12]. Roots can impact a number of hydrological characteristics, including the infiltration of rainfall, run-off velocity and soil moisture content through transpiration, resulting in an increase in the soil shear strength of the soil due to increased suction [
13,
14,
15]. Wu et al. [
12] used the limit equilibrium method (LEM) to investigate forest cover and reinforcement for infinite slopes, while a number of other studies have implemented LEM-based analyses for vegetated hillslopes [
16,
17]. More recently, the finite element method (FEM) has been used to model apparent root cohesion [
18,
19]. A number of additional studies have directly modelled root structures to understand the key root features impacting numerical slope stability models [
20,
21,
22]. Dupuy et al. [
23] assessed the pull-out resistance of six categories of root morphology using two-dimensional FEM, while Mickovski et al. [
24] simulated two-dimensional and three-dimensional FEM models of direct shear tests on multi-rooted soil structures. Further hybrid studies have combined both methods of analysis to investigate primary tap roots and secondary root zones through the use of root cohesion factors [
25,
26].
Root architectures commonly exhibit spatial variability in their composition, with each root displaying geometrical variations in depth, thickness and branching processes. Although the effects of root structure variability on a root-to-root basis is uncommon within slope stability analysis, a number of studies have quantified the characteristics of various root structures based on a set of statistical distributions [
17,
27,
28]. In cases where the impact of root structure variability has been considered, minimal differences to slope Factors of Safety were observed when assessing constant versus linearly increasing root reinforcement with depth [
29].
Often, the effects of root structures are only examined through fibre reinforcement, providing additional root cohesion [
30,
31]. One of the most commonly used methods of estimating root cohesion is the perpendicular root model of Wu [
12] and Waldron [
32] (known as the WWM), as defined by:
where
is the coefficient used to account for the random orientation of roots with respect to the slope failure plane, frequently observed between 1.0 and 1.3 [
27], and
is the mobilised root tensile strength, which can be written as:
such that
(kPa) defines the average root tensile strength per cross-sectional area and
is the root area ratio (RAR) [
9].
where
is the total combined cross-sectional area of the roots and
is the soil area within which the roots are considered. The WWM coefficient
is based on the angle of the root structure
, as shown in
Figure 1, where the root is displaced a distance of
, with the initial root segment
, extending to a length of
[
33], and
is the effective cohesion of the soil.
K can be used to estimate the root cohesion as shown in Equation (1).
As an alternative approach to simulate root reinforcement, structural elements such as pile and beam elements can be embedded in the soil, allowing for direct simulation where roots are considered as flexural cables or bending beams. Studies have combined both methods of analysis to investigate primary tap roots and secondary root zones through the use of root cohesion factors [
25,
26]. This research considers FEM simulation of structural elements to model root reinforcement and topological root structures with comparisons to root cohesion FEM models presented. The results of the two model paradigms are used to develop a set of correlations between the direct simulation of root properties and associated root cohesion factors, bridging the gap between the two techniques.
3. Concluding Remarks
The impact of plant vegetation in providing reinforcement to shallow slopes can be assessed through several numerical techniques. When performing finite element method slope stability analysis, roots can be simulated either directly by structural elements or indirectly through apparent root cohesion factors, with each method exhibiting a range of advantages and disadvantages based on available data and model complexity.
The results detailed in this research present a comparison between three root reinforcement methods for shallow slope stability, with a sensitivity analysis identifying relationships between direct root simulation methods and apparent root cohesion values. The following salient conclusions are drawn:
- (1)
The proposed method provides a mechanism of comparative assessment whereby complex root structures can be associated with a suitable effective root cohesion, exhibiting comparable deformation characteristics and slope safety factors. As a result of the method, the direct simulation of root architectures can be replaced with somewhat simplified effective root cohesion parameters, whose relationships have been provided.
- (2)
In all cases presented, the relationships were found to be either linear or logarithmic in nature, except when comparing the angles of branched root structures and apparent root cohesion values.
- (3)
For extremely shallow root structures of the order of half a metre in depth, minimal root cohesion is provided regardless of the structural root characteristics, suggesting little benefit in modelling the roots through structural elements.
- (4)
The changes in the observed FOS values for the chosen examples are often quite modest, with most FOS values of the order of 1.0 to 1.3; however, the method provides a framework that can be further extended to coupled mechanical and hydrological models.
While each numerical technique has a range of benefits and limitations, it is important to understand model performance compared with alternative methods. Limitations of the study and recommendations for future investigation are identified as follows:
- (1)
The current study provides a point of comparison between effective root cohesion and direct root simulation without the presence of groundwater. In addition to the mechanical benefits in strengthening soil slopes, roots provide significant hydromechanical benefits through the uptake of groundwater, which has not been considered within the current research.
- (2)
Direct simulation consists of idealised root architectures that have not taken into account the heterogeneity of root geometries. The simulation methods presented within this study can be considered as amenable to Monte-Carlo-style simulation to determine how complex, spatially variable root patterns can impact the stability of soil slopes and the associated effective root cohesion that is considered comparable to simulations involving root geometries.
- (3)
While root architecture is a central focus of this research, above-ground tree and shrub structures and their toppling loads were not considered as within the scope of investigation.
- (4)
An initial single-layered slope was presented for a variety of root parameters, indicating the process whereby more complex multilayered soil layers and slope geometries may be assessed.
The developed stability charts provide a quick and easy method for comparing the mechanical performance of numerical methods for the root reinforcement of shallow slopes. Although the results presented highlight the mechanical behaviour of reinforced slopes, it is expected that further assessment of similar methods can also be extended to incorporate various aspects of vegetation hydrology and the impacts of roots on groundwater systems for complex slope geometries and a wider variety of soils.