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Pollutants, Volume 3, Issue 2 (June 2023) – 8 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Brazil is a mega-biodiverse country with the following six terrestrial biomes: Amazonia, Atlantic Forest, Caatina, Cerrado, Pantanal, and Pampa. Although the problems faced by the Amazon Forest are well known across the globe, Brazilian non-forest biomes also face important environmental challenges, but they receive little attention compared to Brazil’s forest biomes. This is the case for the Pampa region, a biome covered by grasslands and mosaics of grassland-forest vegetation and located in the extreme south of Brazil. Due to the multiple and extensive agricultural activities observed in Pampa, pesticide pollution is currently a major (but neglected) problem faced by this biome. This article draws attention to the deleterious impacts of pesticides on the Brazilian Pampa focusing on human, animal, and environmental health. Finally, solutions to deal with this problem are suggested. View this paper
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27 pages, 3261 KiB  
Review
Impact of Indoor Air Pollution in Pakistan—Causes and Management
by Ayesha Kausar, Ishaq Ahmad, Tianle Zhu and Hassan Shahzad
Pollutants 2023, 3(2), 293-319; https://doi.org/10.3390/pollutants3020021 - 06 Jun 2023
Viewed by 5285
Abstract
This state-of-the-art review is designed to provide a factual analysis of indoor air pollution in Pakistan. Primarily, the main sources of indoor air pollution and related air pollutants were analyzed. Key sources of indoor air pollution include household energy sources (biomass, wood, coal, [...] Read more.
This state-of-the-art review is designed to provide a factual analysis of indoor air pollution in Pakistan. Primarily, the main sources of indoor air pollution and related air pollutants were analyzed. Key sources of indoor air pollution include household energy sources (biomass, wood, coal, tobacco, and low temperatures) producing particulate matter (PM), dust particles, smoke, COx, noxious gases, bioaerosols, airborne microflora, and flame retardants. According to the literature, rural regions of Pakistan using biomass indoor fuels have a high indoor PM concentration in the range of 4000–9000 μg/m3. In rural/urban regions, indoor smoking also leads to high PM2.5 levels of ~1800 μg/m3, which can cause pulmonary infections. In hospitals, PM concentrations were detected up to 1000 μg/m3, causing repeated infections in patients. Indoor ingestion of dust containing polychlorinated biphenyl concentrations was observed at high levels (~8.79–34.39 ng/g) in cities; this can cause serious health effects such as cancer risks and a loss of working productivity. Moreover, indoor microflora and bacteria (~10,000–15,000 cfu m−3) in urban/rural regions cause respiratory/cancer risks. In this context, indoor air quality (IAQ) monitoring and management strategies have been somewhat developed; however, their implementation in Pakistan’s rural/urban indoor environments is still needed. Various challenges were identified for monitoring/regulating IAQ. There is a firm need for industry–academia–research cooperation and for the involvement of government/agencies to support indoor air pollution control/management and for intervention strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Air Pollution)
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13 pages, 1338 KiB  
Opinion
Pesticide Pollution in the Brazilian Pampa: Detrimental Impacts on Ecosystems and Human Health in a Neglected Biome
by Marina Ziliotto, Bruna Kulmann-Leal, Alice Roitman, José Artur Bogo Chies and Joel Henrique Ellwanger
Pollutants 2023, 3(2), 280-292; https://doi.org/10.3390/pollutants3020020 - 01 Jun 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1690
Abstract
The Brazilian Pampa biome covers half of Rio Grande do Sul state, in the extreme south of Brazil, creating an ecotone zone with the Atlantic Forest and bordering Pampa’s territory belonging to Uruguay and Argentina. Pampa is a non-forest biome mainly composed of [...] Read more.
The Brazilian Pampa biome covers half of Rio Grande do Sul state, in the extreme south of Brazil, creating an ecotone zone with the Atlantic Forest and bordering Pampa’s territory belonging to Uruguay and Argentina. Pampa is a non-forest biome mainly composed of grasslands and mosaics of grassland-forest vegetation. This biome shows significant animal and plant diversity, contributing to the maintenance of important ecosystem services, including CO2 capture, pollination, and water cycle regulation. However, forestry plantations, inappropriate cattle ranching, mining activities, unplanned urbanization, and the cultivation of monocultures (soy, rice, tobacco, and other cash crops) significantly threaten the conservation of the Pampa biome. A major problem observed in the Pampa, due to the great connection of this biome with agricultural areas, is pesticide pollution, which significantly affects the health of humans and animals that occupy the region. A robust body of evidence indicates that aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems in the Brazilian Pampa are extensively contaminated with pesticides, as indicated by studies involving animal biomarkers and pesticide analyses performed on water and soil samples. Human studies also suggest that pesticides affect different body systems, facilitating the onset of various chronic diseases. Brazil’s conservation actions and policies have a special focus on forest ecosystems, neglecting non-forest biomes and thus aggravating the problems related to Pampa’s conservation. In this article, we discuss some problems caused by pesticide pollution in the Brazilian Pampa, drawing attention to the need for intensification of policies focused on the promotion of human and environmental health. Finally, we suggest the bioecological bioeconomy as an alternative for Rio Grande do Sul to progress its economic development but with less dependency on detrimental activities to the Pampa biome. Full article
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25 pages, 20480 KiB  
Article
Monitoring Trends of CO, NO2, SO2, and O3 Pollutants Using Time-Series Sentinel-5 Images Based on Google Earth Engine
by Mohammad Kazemi Garajeh, Giovanni Laneve, Hamid Rezaei, Mostafa Sadeghnejad, Neda Mohamadzadeh and Behnam Salmani
Pollutants 2023, 3(2), 255-279; https://doi.org/10.3390/pollutants3020019 - 22 May 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3162
Abstract
Air pollution (AP) is a significant risk factor for public health, and its impact is becoming increasingly concerning in developing countries where it is causing a growing number of health issues. It is therefore essential to map and monitor AP sources in order [...] Read more.
Air pollution (AP) is a significant risk factor for public health, and its impact is becoming increasingly concerning in developing countries where it is causing a growing number of health issues. It is therefore essential to map and monitor AP sources in order to facilitate local action against them. This study aims at assessing the suitability of Sentinel-5 AP products based on Google Earth Engine (GEE) to monitor air pollutants, including CO, NO2, SO2, and O3 in Arak city, Iran from 2018 to 2019. Our process involved feeding satellite images to a cloud-free GEE platform that identified pollutant-affected areas monthly, seasonally, and annually. By coding in the JavaScript language in the GEE, four pollution parameters of Sentinel-5 satellite images were obtained. Following that, images with clouds were filtered by defining cloud filters, and average maps were extracted by defining average filters for both years. The employed model, which solely used Sentinel-5 AP products, was tested and assessed using ground data collected from the Environmental Organization of Central Province. Our findings revealed that annual CO, NO2, SO2, and O3 were estimated with RMSE of 0.13, 2.58, 4.62, and 2.36, respectively, for the year 2018. The annual CO, NO2, SO2, and O3 for the year 2019 were also calculated with RMSE of 0.17, 2.41, 4.31, and 4.6, respectively. The results demonstrated that seasonal AP was estimated with RMSE of 0.09, 5.39, 0.70, and 7.81 for CO, NO2, SO2, and O3, respectively, for the year 2018. Seasonal AP was also estimated with RMSE of 0.12, 4.99, 1.33, and 1.27 for CO, NO2, SO2, and O3, respectively, for the year 2019. The results of this study revealed that Sentinel-5 data combined with automated-based approaches, such as GEE, can perform better than traditional approaches (e.g., pollution measuring stations) for AP mapping and monitoring since they are capable of providing spatially distributed data that is sufficiently accurate. Full article
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12 pages, 1385 KiB  
Article
Influence of Seasons and Tides on the Distribution of Enteric Protozoa on the Shores of the Atlantic Ocean in Kribi (South Region of Cameroon): Health Risks Related to Bathing
by Paul Alain Nana, Majesté Pahane Mbiada, Siméon Tchakonté, Karine Moche, Rodrigue Steve Mouchili Palena, Moïse Nola and Télesphore Sime-Ngando
Pollutants 2023, 3(2), 243-254; https://doi.org/10.3390/pollutants3020018 - 04 May 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1229
Abstract
Beaches are major sites of microbiological pollution. Assessment of the abundance of resistant forms of enteric protozoa on these recreational waters is important for the prevention and management of health risks. Based on sedimentation and flotation methods, this study found that Kribi beach [...] Read more.
Beaches are major sites of microbiological pollution. Assessment of the abundance of resistant forms of enteric protozoa on these recreational waters is important for the prevention and management of health risks. Based on sedimentation and flotation methods, this study found that Kribi beach waters concentrate considerable amounts of enteric protozoa, which are potentially pathogenic. They include Coccidia (Cryptosporidium sp. and Cyclospora cayetanensis), Amoebae (Endolimax nana, Entamoeba histolytica and Entamoeba coli) and Flagellates (Giardia intestinalis). In general, seasonal changes and tidal cycles have significantly impacted the spread of these parasites along Kribi beaches. Thus, at all sites surveyed (Mpalla, Ngoyè and Mboamanga), maximum protozoan abundances were recorded at low tide and during the rainy seasons. It should also be noted that at each sampling site, significant correlations were recorded between certain protozoa and certain physico-chemical variables (p < 0.05). At Mboamanga, for example, Cryptosporidium sp. and Endolimax nana were positively correlated during the Short Rainy Season with temperature (r = 0.601, p = 0.044 and r = 0.632, p = 0.042). At Mpalla, a positive and significant correlation was observed during the Short Rainy Season between Entamoeba coli and pH (r = 0.605, p = 0.033). The high concentration of resistant forms of these enteric protozoa at Kribi beaches is a real public health threat for bathers. Therefore, in this tourist town, it is urgent to put in place an effective plan for the collection and sustainable treatment of solid and liquid waste, which are the main sources of contamination. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Waste Pollution)
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11 pages, 1803 KiB  
Brief Report
Effects of Ammonia on Juvenile Sunray Surf Clam (Mactra chinensis Philippi) in Laboratory Tests
by Yuanyuan Dai, Yubo Dong, Feng Yang, Zhongzhi Chen and Jia Jia
Pollutants 2023, 3(2), 232-242; https://doi.org/10.3390/pollutants3020017 - 14 Apr 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1286
Abstract
The current study aimed to determine the acute and sub-chronic toxicity of ammonia to juvenile surf clams (Mactra chinensis Philippi). Acute toxicity tests were conducted with seven concentrations of ammonium chloride using a 96 h static-renewal approach. Sub-chronic ammonia exposure tests (20 [...] Read more.
The current study aimed to determine the acute and sub-chronic toxicity of ammonia to juvenile surf clams (Mactra chinensis Philippi). Acute toxicity tests were conducted with seven concentrations of ammonium chloride using a 96 h static-renewal approach. Sub-chronic ammonia exposure tests (20 d exposures) were conducted with 6 concentrations at 20 °C. The 96 h median lethal concentration (96 h LC50) was 11.1 (10.0; 12.0) mg/L total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) and 0.56 (0.50; 0.60) mg/L unionized ammonia (NH3). The relative growth rate was significantly reduced at concentrations higher than 1.6 mg/L TAN (0.075 mg/L NH3) in the 20 d tests. The estimated maximum acceptable toxicant concentration (MATC) based on the reduced growth of juvenile M. chinensis was between 0.8 and1.6 mg/L TAN (0.038–0.075 mg/L NH3). Histopathological changes were evaluated in the surviving clams after 20 days of exposure. Exposure to 14.1 mg/L TAN (0.661 mg/L NH3) resulted in changes in the mantle, foot and digestive diverticulum. We also examined the antioxidant enzyme activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) in 10 d and 20 d at 6 different levels (plus a control) of ammonia from 0.8 mg/L to 14.1 mg/L TAN. Ammonia exposure at 0.8 mg/L TAN (0.038 mg/L NH3) significantly affected SOD and CAT activities. The level of enzymic activity decreased with the increasing concentration of TAN. The results improved our understanding of oxidative damage under ammonia exposure and provided data for the aquaculture of sunray surf clams. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Pollutants - Volume 2)
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12 pages, 2820 KiB  
Article
Effect of Soil Texture, Nanoparticle Size, and Incubation Period on the Dissolution of ZnO Nanoparticles
by Wajid Umar, Imre Czinkota, Miklós Gulyás, Muhammad Ashar Ayub, András Sebők, Muhammad Yousaf Nadeem and Muhammad Arslan Zulfiqar
Pollutants 2023, 3(2), 220-231; https://doi.org/10.3390/pollutants3020016 - 06 Apr 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1472
Abstract
Zinc is an essential plant and human nutrient and its primary source is Zn-rich food consumption. The only way to enrich plants with Zn is through the application of Zn fertilizers including various chemical and organic sources of ZnO nanoparticles (NPs). The Zn [...] Read more.
Zinc is an essential plant and human nutrient and its primary source is Zn-rich food consumption. The only way to enrich plants with Zn is through the application of Zn fertilizers including various chemical and organic sources of ZnO nanoparticles (NPs). The Zn bioavailability from ZnO NPs must be considered for their recommendation as a fertilizer, and very little is known about the efficacy of such fertilizers in the Hungarian soil environment. In the present investigation, we prepared ZnO NPs of different sizes and applied them in two distinct textures of soils (sandy loam (SL) and silty clay (SC)) in an incubation experiment. The prepared ZnO NPs were characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). ZnO NPs were applied in both soil types at 500 mg L−1 in the form of a suspension, and ZnSO4 was applied in the form of a solution. The soils were incubated for 7 and 14 days. Column leaching was performed to analyze the dissolved Zn. Retained Zn in the soil matrix was extracted using 0.05 M EDTA. The results showed that approximately 21–23% and 10–13% higher Zn was observed in the pore water of SL and SC soils, respectively, when spiked with small-sized NPs compared to large-sized NPs, while 14–26% higher dissolved Zn was observed in SL soil compared to SC soil. It is concluded that the size of NPs and the soil texture are the main factors that play important roles in deciding the fate of NPs under an alkaline soil environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Soil Pollution)
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23 pages, 16107 KiB  
Article
Assessment of Air Pollution Levels during Sugarcane Stubble Burning Event in La Feria, South Texas, USA
by Sai Deepak Pinakana, Edward Robles, Esmeralda Mendez and Amit U. Raysoni
Pollutants 2023, 3(2), 197-219; https://doi.org/10.3390/pollutants3020015 - 24 Mar 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1865
Abstract
Agricultural stubble burning is the third largest source of air pollution after vehicular and industrial emissions. Fine particulate matter (PM2.5), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and black carbon (BC) are some of the pollutants [...] Read more.
Agricultural stubble burning is the third largest source of air pollution after vehicular and industrial emissions. Fine particulate matter (PM2.5), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and black carbon (BC) are some of the pollutants emitted during such burning events. The Lower Rio Grande Valley (RGV) region of South Texas is a major hub of agricultural activity, and sugarcane farming is one of them. Unfortunately, this activity results in episodic events of high air pollution in this low-resourced, Hispanic/Latino majority region of the U.S.–Mexico border. This study presents results from a sugarcane site in La Feria, South Texas, where the air quality was monitored before, during, and after the sugarcane stubble burning. Various parameters were monitored on an hourly basis from 24 February 2022 to 4 April 2022. Our results demonstrate high levels of all the monitored pollutants during the burning phase in contrast to the pre- and post-burning period. The black carbon levels went up to 6.43 µg m−3 on the day of burning activity. An increase of 10%, 11.6%, 25.29%, 55%, and 67.57% was recorded in the PM1, PM2.5, PM10, Black Carbon, and CO levels, respectively, during the burning period in comparison with the total study period. The absorption Ångström exponent value reached a maximum value of 2.03 during the burning activity. ThePM2.5/PM10 ratio was 0.87 during the burning activity. This study also highlights the importance for continuous monitoring of air quality levels due to stubble burning in the Lower Rio Grande Valley Region of South Texas. Full article
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16 pages, 2717 KiB  
Article
Mercury Accumulation in Food Crops and Phytoremediation Potential of Wild Plants Thriving in Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Areas in Uganda
by Jamilu E. Ssenku, Betty Naziriwo, Jennifer Kutesakwe, Abubakar Sadik Mustafa, Derrick Kayeera and Emmanuel Tebandeke
Pollutants 2023, 3(2), 181-196; https://doi.org/10.3390/pollutants3020014 - 23 Mar 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2099
Abstract
Mercury (Hg) has been used for millennia in artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) to extract gold from ore as an amalgam that is heated to recover gold. Since there is hardly any sustainable technology that can be used to recover it, the [...] Read more.
Mercury (Hg) has been used for millennia in artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) to extract gold from ore as an amalgam that is heated to recover gold. Since there is hardly any sustainable technology that can be used to recover it, the vast percentage of released Hg finds its way into the environment. Currently, ASGM is the largest source of mercury pollution on Earth. Mercury (Hg) is listed among the top 10 most harmful metals by the World Health Organization (WHO), and it is known to cause several neurological disorders in humans. Thus, Hg levels in environmental systems surrounding pollution hotspots such as ASGM mines need to be monitored to ensure their proper management and protect vulnerable ecosystems and human health. This work was aimed to study the level of Hg pollution in soils and plants thriving around ASGM mines in Eastern Uganda and to evaluate the Hg phytoremediation potential of the plants. The total Hg contents were determined for soils, food crops and wild plants growing around ASGM mines. The results for the pH, organic carbon (OC) and electric conductivity (EC) of the soils in the study area were comparable to those of the control soils. The soils in the studied ASGM areas exhibited high Hg concentrations ranging between 723 and 2067 folds more than those of the control soils. All soils were moderately to heavily contaminated according to geoaccumulation (Igeo) index values that ranged between 1.16 and 3.31. The results of this study also showed that the food crops and wild plants accumulated Hg levels that were above the 20 ng/g (0.02 ppm) permissible limit. This study revealed relatively higher levels of Hg in the aerial parts of the plants compared with the underground organs, which can be attributed to Hg deposition, entry through stomata and foliar adsorption. Mercury levels in 47% of the food crop samples were above the FAO/WHO permissible mercury limit of 0.5 µg/g. Similarly, medicinal plants accumulated Hg to levels that were several folds higher than the 0.2 ppm permissible limit of mercury in herbal materials of Canada. Interestingly, this study showed that some wild plant species, especially sedges, exhibited relatively higher levels of mercury accumulation than others thriving in the same environment, an indication that such plants could be utilized in the phytoremediation of Hg-contaminated sites. Full article
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